This Loyalist likely lived on North Caicos and helped build Ft. St. George.

By Dr. Charlene Kozy, former professor and president of  Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tennessee

The master's house at Wade's Green, North Caicos.

In my previous article, “Follow the Chimneys”  (Spring 2009 Times of the Islands), local plantations were described as to content and their relation to a new community. To further learn and understand this early history, the individuals that immigrated  and built the community should be studied. Each has an unique and fascinating story. Let’s begin with Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Brown of His Majesty’s Kings Rangers.

Thomas Brown was born in the seaport town of Whitby in Yorkshire, England. His father Jonas Brown was from a distinguished and titled family and his mother was the granddaughter of Isaac Newton. He received a classical education and sailed on his father’s ships to the New World transacting business from Nova Scotia to Barbados. He spoke of the cordial treatment from the American colonists and decided to settle there, specifically in Georgia.

Unfortunately for Brown, he arrived in America when a movement for independence from England was strong, although it seemed far away in Boston. Brown attended one of the “Sons of Liberty” meetings where he spoke freely of allegiance to the King and refused to sign a document known as the “Continental Association” which declared allegiance to a rebellion. Brown had been honored with a magistracy appointment and had taken an oath to uphold British law.

After the meeting, he was followed home by “a hundred or so” men. After a vigorous defense, he was brutally assaulted, tarred and feathered, partially scalped and tied to a tree with fire under his feet that caused the loss of toes. The greatest harm was a blow to his head that came from behind and left him unconscious for two days and  with headaches for the rest of his life. He even submitted to brain surgery to remove any bone fragments that might have lodged in his brain. Nothing stopped his headaches. His feet were so damaged that he was known as “Burntfoot Brown” throughout the war.

The mistreatment of Brown brought the Loyalists one of their ablest leaders who would repay the “Sons of Liberty” in full measure. In a letter to his father he said, “I do not wish to take up arms against the country that gave me being.” He understood commitment and his five years in the American Revolutionary War gave him experience.

A new home on North Caicos

Following the unsuccessful war in America, the British government began aiding the banished Americans in finding new homes. Surveys in 1782 and 1783 established which islands in the Bahamas were uninhabited and the kind of soil each had. The Caicos Islands were found as uninhabited and “having the best soil.”

Claims were made systematically relating to losses in America. Considerations were given to those who had performed “exceptional services,” and those who had borne arms. The total acreage granted on North Caicos was 10,090 acres and on Middle Caicos 4,814 acres.

The military grantees were obviously favored over the non-military grantees and were high-ranking commissioned officers. Although the number of actual grants to the military was approximately one in four, the average acreage per grant was approximately 680 for military and 189 for non-military. The largest percent of the grantees were from Georgia, South Carolina and East Florida with the exception of Stephen De Lancey, a high ranking officer from New York. His plantation is noted on present day maps by its name “Greenwich” on North Caicos. William Farr was the only grantee who was originally from the Bahamas. The grants were issued between 1789 and 1790. The planters built homes, roads, planted crops and were beginning to be a community.

Thomas Brown received eight grants of land in 1789 and one in 1790. The grants totaled 4,560 acres and some sources have his acreage as high as 8,000. Many grantees named their plantation as Brown named Brownsborough in Georgia. The location of his plantation home has not been identified since no appraisal was made and a name not recorded. A clue might be that his future father-in-law, William Farr, received 380 acres “on the southward of the salt pond between Pumpkin’s Bluff and three rocks bounded on the north by the said salt pond and on the east by Thomas Brown’s.” Farr called his plantation “Cottage.” Mr. Farr died in l800 and it is likely that Brown’s house was nearby since it became a familial household with widow Farr, her sister and Charles Fox Taylor (an Indian Loyalist from Georgia) living there. The coastal town of Whitby, North Caicos was undoubtedly named for Brown’s birthplace, Whitby, England.

The West Indies had been described as a virtual money-box to both the British and French for over 100 years. After a short ten years of peace, the humiliated British Navy set out to re-establish sea power and acquire the entire French possessions in the West Indies beginning in 1793. The proximity of the Caicos created a threat to the fledging Island settlement.

Protecting Fort St. George

“The water is clear and cannons are easily seen lying partially buried in the sand.”

Dr. Donald Keith,  2007

Crumbling remains of fort on Ft. George Cay

This is what we see now, but let’s drift back in time to the 1790s and visualize Fort St. George Harbor. In letters written in 1805 by Thomas Brown to the Earl of Camden and the Under Secretary of State he tells how he met the threat of a French invasion in an area “totally out of the protection of government and is daily exposed to capture or destruction.”

With this daily reminder of what could happen, he states that “he (the petitioner) also constructed two forts,  barracks for soldiers at his own expense and provided the same with fourteen cannons, ammunition, and other military stores for the defence of the Island and provided the same with and equipped and manned 14 guns from the last war for the defence of Saint George Harbor.” He mentioned in the last paragraph that a furnace was constructed for “the heating of shot.”

The letter continues, “that for the security of his  property on the Caicos, as will be more fully appear by documents delivered to the Lord of the Treasury, he armed, clothed, and disciplined . . . all of his Negro men during the whole of the last war and never had a cause to repent of the trust in their fidelity.”

There is no account of the fort being tested by a French invasion but one rousing activity was reported in the Bahama Gazette of August 21, 1798:

“A ship bound for Grand Caicos was wrecked on West Caicos. Brown and other planters sent their boats to retrieve goods belonging to them. As the supplies were being transferred into the small boats, a French privateer came up under full sail. Four vessels made a run for it, but Brown’s men decided to fight for their possessions. The all-black crew was armed with only a two-pounder cannons and muskets, but they drove off the Frenchmen repeatedly. The heavier armed privateer stayed out of range of Brown’s defenders and used its cannons to sink Brown’s boat. The valiant crew swam ashore.”

A letter from Brown to his father Jonas Brown in Whitby, England told of the battle and wrote, “I was so proud of my men, I did not mind the loss of the goods.” For slaves to be armed without fear of a rebellion or running away is more than unusual, it is unheard of on American plantations. The attitude of slave owners was to keep watch and severe punishment was inflicted for any suspicion of disloyalty.

He shows his understanding of the efforts in the West Indies by suggesting that the troops going to Jamaica be sent to the Caicos “for seasoning” to reduce the mortality rate. He further proposes the establishment of “a naval and military camp hospitals on Pine Key . . . For the people with contagious disorders might have a chance of recovery in pure air.”

In a later letter Brown offers to “with pleasure (if deemed necessary) embark with 100 armed Negroes . . . or any service I am capable from my local or military knowledge” to aid in the war.

In the several letters recorded in the Colonial Office, Brown repeats his concern for the safety and welfare of the inhabitants of the Caicos Island and that Ft. St. George was a vulnerable place because of its deep harbors, and urged that it be strengthened to withstand any attack.

Happy days

Thomas Brown’s ten year stay on North Caicos was perhaps the happiest time in his life. He received land in March, 1789–90 and in October 1789, the Gazette announced his marriage to Ester Farr of Nassau, the 16-year old daughter of Captain William Farr and his wife Sarah “on the Caicos.” Projecting, it is possible that the two met in Nassau, fell in love and with Brown’s influence, Farr received land on the Caicos. Her young age would support the desirability of her parents moving with her. Thomas and Ester (Hetty) had four children born on the Caicos. Mary Frances, Thomas Alexander Murray, Charles Susan Baring, and Susan Harriet — who was her father’s favorite.

Since there was no appraisal, the contents of his household are not known as it is with other plantations;  however, the structure of property and management of the plantation is known and in comparison to other plantations is most unusual.

In a petition written to the Earl of Camden requesting land on St. Vincent, Brown describes his plantation as having 643 Negro slaves (he did not own slaves in America, his servants were white indentured) and 15 white overseers and their families situated on 13 cotton plantations and one sugar estate. He allowed each slave (or family) to live on an acre of land. Mathematically, this would encompass at least 300 acres and would spread the slaves’ living quarters instead of slave row houses found on other plantations.

With the acreage he owned, he could support these large numbers and still show a profit. He recorded, as being cultivated, 3,000 acres in cotton, 1,000 in grapes, and 700 in corn to feed his people. Trees were used as wind barriers and fences. This eliminated the laboriously built stone fences found in other plantations. For profit, he claimed his estate made 20,000 pounds each year.

A unique feature of Brown’s plantation goes beyond “arming and disciplining” his Negro men. It is the total lifestyle he created for “his people.”

He wrote more than once about the treatment of his slaves; i.e. not asking his people to do tasks that animals could so such as turning heavy wheels of grist or sugar mills. He would buy a slave from another plantation for marriage at his plantation and his policy was to not sell his people. His relationship and trust in his slaves are exemplified in the arming of the men, allowing them to have land of their own and respecting their tasks performed and family life.

The death of his father on March 28, 1799, the proximity to rebellious islands, and the slowing of profit on the Caicos caused Brown to return to Whitby, England. The danger of the seas and an illness delayed his departure until June 1802. He gathered his children, now age 11 and younger, Hetty’s mother Sarah Farr and Black Nancy, the housekeeper with her mulatto son George to make the trip.

It is speculated that George was Thomas’s son. In his will that was written at St. Vincent he gave a certificate of freedom for some “faithful Negroes who had given unequivocal proofs of affection for him and pay to Nancy  Browne, his eldest and most faithful servant £10 annually during her life and give her a house and grounds upon his estate and in case of sickness or any casualty to demand the plantation allowance and medical attendance.” Cyree Browne and Maurice Moore Browne of the Caicos were mentioned in the will with similar gifts. They stayed on the Caicos to manage the cattle ranch when Brown moved to St. Vincent. (The will is courtesy of Joan Leggett, great-great-great-great  grandaughter of Thomas Brown.)

In Yorkshire, Brown bought Newton House from family members and moved his family there. A fifth child, George Newton Brown. was born at Yorkshire. Brown’s war record and fortune opened society’s doors and he was generally welcomed as a hero.

Brown’s plantation on the Caicos operated for a few years with overseers until he could clear his way to St. Vincent. King George III granted Brown’s request for 6,000 acres on November 10, 1804. He moved his family (with the exception of the younger children in school) to St. Vincent and in 1805 he procured a ship to transport his 643 Negroes and 15 white overseers. It was estimated that four or five trips would be necessary. It was in 1806 before the transition was complete. Brown returned to England and stayed until 1817 due to legal problems. The estate in St. Vincent would operate under the management of Tom Cayley, Brown’s nephew.

Upon returning  to St. Vincent, he built a mansion for his family. It was at this time that he added an “e” to change the spelling of his surname to Browne. He  named his house Montague House, honoring his ancestor Sir Anthony Browne, Viscount Montague, master of horse for King Henry VIII. Thomas Browne died on St. Vincent  on August 3, 1825 at the age of 75.

Conclusions

The only visible legacy of Thomas Brown on the Caicos Islands would be Fort St. George at St. George Harbor. Evidence of British soldiers has been found, which leads us to question the authenticity of Brown’s claim of constructing the fort. A study of the war with France which began in 1792 and was fought bitterly in the West Indies is necessary, along with the capability of Thomas Brown.

Thomas Brown was a soldier, a British soldier. He entered service for His Majesty George III when he was 25 years old in America. He fought with Cornwallis against George Washington in the southern arena during the American Revolution. He developed the “Southern Strategy” that lengthened the war. Thomas Brown took part in all the major engagements and many minor skirmishes over a five year period and lived to tell it.

History chronicles the bloody war in the South with Brown a major player. General Henry Lee asked Brown to surrender at Fort Cornwallis which stood near a river. Lee described it as “judiciously constructed, well finished and secure from storm.” The second fort was Colonel James Grierson’s house or Fort Grierson. The Americans attacked Fort Grierson and Brown covered the men there with a cannonade and led them to Fort Cornwallis. The ability of Thomas Brown to construct and properly man  them is supporting evidence of his construction of the fort with possibly the help of other inhabitants of the Island.

The war in the Caribbean and the British need to win there must be considered. The Caicos Islands were uninhabited until the land grants were made in 1789–1791. The war between the French and English began in 1793. Three years was not enough time to establish the importance that the sugar plantations in the West Indies had.

In addition, the old rivalry between the French and English heightened after the French and Indian War in America when the French lost all their lands to the English. The French were not hesitant to support the rebellious colonies in America in getting their freedom from England.

The renewal of war after only a ten year peace alerted the British to protect their maritime and commercial interests. It was decided by the British Secretary of State for Home and Colonies that the West Indies was “the first point to make perfectly certain.” The main crops were sugar, coffee and cotton, with sugar by far the largest commodity for over 100 years. France enjoyed the same productivity but on a slightly smaller scale. England was addicted to tea with sugar added.

Thus, the mission in the West Indies was to re-establish British sea power and a hope of acquiring the entire French overseas empire. In May 1797. Britain’s offensive military resources were exhausted. At least 20,000 deaths in the army in the Caribbean were recorded in 1797. By 1801, it is reasonable to assume that 43,750 white men died both in the Caribbean and en route. Men ready to fight were demoralized by diseases of malaria and yellow fever more than by the French soldiers or rebel slaves.

The British changed their strategy in 1796–97 to safeguard their possession admitting “the climate of the West Indies . . . has destroyed the armies of Great Britain.” After 1797, military operations in the Caribbean were subordinate in nature.

It was after 1797 and the evacuation of British armies in Saint Domingo that Thomas Brown made the plea for protection of the Caicos Islands and the description of  forts built by himself/inhabitants of the Caicos Islands. At the same time it is documented that

“young Neil Campbell entered the Army in 1797 . . . and in October 1798 we find him stationed at Jamaica as ensign in the 67th Regiment. In consequence of evacuation of St. Domingo by the British at that period and its delivery to Toussaint L’Ouverture the Negro Chief, the colonist of the Caicos, or Turks’ Islands, were apprehensive that an attack might be made upon them by the Blacks . . . a small detachment of the 67th Regiment, and a party of Artillery with guns and stores under the command of Ensign Neil Campbell. . . . the whole encircled by a reef of coral excepting in one part. Where there is deep water and anchorage within the reef.  . . . on a small bank opposite to this anchorage, Ensign Campbell placed his detachment and then proceded to construct fences, barricades and storehouses. . . . Neil Campbell returned to England in 1800.”

No mention is made of cannons or furnace for heating shot in the documentary. It is logical to assume, since his stay was barely one year, that he refurbished the living arrangements for soldiers in the existing fort.

In view of the global situation with England and France and a careful study of the encounters between the French and English in the West Indies exacerbated by malaria and yellow fever, logic and fact would strongly suggest that the British government did not build the fort (or two forts) on St. George Harbor; however, they did occupy it when Neil Campbell was sent as a reinforcement after Brown’s plea for support at the existing forts.

Sources

PRIMARY SOURCES

Bahama Registry

Colonial Office, British Public Record Office, 260/19

Letters from Thomas Brown to his father Jonas Brown

Joan Leggett, private collection

BOOKS

Cashin, Edward. The King’s Ranger. Thomas Brown and the American Revolution on the Southern Frontier.

Duffy, Michael. Soldiers, Sugar and Seapower. The British Expeditions to the West Indies and the War against Revolutionary France.

The Bahama Almanac and Register for the Year 1801. Memoir of Sir Neil Campbell.

NEWSPAPER

Bahama Gazette. Nassau, Bahamas. 1784–1800.  Microfilm copy in P.K. Yonge Library of Florida History, University of Florida.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Terry Smith

Lee Smith

Dr. Donald Keith

Editor’s Note: Dr. Donald Keith from Ships of Discovery and Dr. Neal Hitch of the TCI National Museum plan an expanded archaeological exploration project on Ft. George Cay from October 23 to November 6, 2009. We’ll keep you informed of the results.

Middle Caicos proves itself as “the little island that can.”

By Sara Kaufman ~ Photos By Claire Parrish

View of Mudjin Harbour from top of bluff in Middle Caicos

It has been a year since Hurricanes Hanna and Ike rampaged through the Turks & Caicos Islands, and despite the physical reminders of debris, broken infrastructure and fallen trees it seems a long time ago. Middle Caicos was comparatively fortunate, with damages to houses minimal and no injuries to residents — but the causeway between North and Middle Caicos was almost ruined. Memories of the storms are distant now, but the energy at the time was blazing!

Oddly, although Middle Caicos is the largest island in the Turks & Caicos at 48 square miles, the population is only about 300 people which makes for a very familiar and close community. Both during the storms and afterward, everyone pulled together to make sure supplies were available to those in need. In the pause between the two storms we had two days to ensure everyone was in shape to handle Category Five Hurricane Ike bearing down on us.

Hurricane Hanna had pummeled us with rain for days, trapped us in our homes for most of a week, ripped apart the asphalt, guardrails, lights and much of the causeway surface (making the causeway connecting Middle Caicos and North Caicos totally useless), toppled trees and flooded all the ponds and low areas. The rain and tidal surges turned the channel between North and Middle Caicos brown with runoff and bottom churn, showing a power none had expected from Hanna! On Thursday morning we hurried to take advantage of the respite before Ike was due Saturday afternoon, repairing leaks, hustling those stuck on Middle back to their islands, checking supplies, and ensuring neighbours were safe. Hanna had been long but kind in a strange sort of way, with no one hurt, no homes lost and no vehicles swept away.

Without the causeway — to which we had all grown quite accustomed — we were an isolated island once again and back to the old routine of trucks to the Pine Barrel ferry landing on Middle Caicos, across to Toby Rock landing on North Caicos by small boat, then trucks on the other shore to run up to Bottle Creek for food, propane, water and other supplies . . . then all in reverse to get the goods home to Middle Caicos. This shuttle system ran non-stop in the quiet two days after Hanna and before Ike.

Although flooding from Hanna’s monstrous rains cut off each village for normal vehicles to pass, major construction equipment could travel through the flooded road areas and keep us all in touch. While many residents were in the shelters, most preferred to remain at home, so ensuring all were taken care of in that short time span was a huge task. But by Saturday afternoon everyone was huddled down safely as Ike slammed into the country. Throughout the endless night the cell phones continued to work, making for heartbreaking conversations with folks in Grand Turk as their roofs lifted off and ours creaked ominously. Everyone was awed by the power of the storm.

Walking out of our burrow on Monday morning, peering through my fingers to see how much was left of our restaurant and office near the shore, afraid maybe all had been blown away, sent me to my knees when I saw all the buildings intact. Amazingly, the combination of Hanna with major rain and low winds, then Ike with major wind and no rain kept damages down for all.

One of our best advantages on Middle Caicos is the little power plant based there. Whereas normally electricity comes all the way from Providenciales, the local plant can run all power for Middle Caicos by itself. This emergency power plant ran flat out for weeks, keeping us in light, with running water and working refrigerators. As the causeway remained unusable for weeks, a steady stream of barrels of diesel fuel had to be manhandled across the water in small boats by volunteers, then hand pumped into the tanks at the plant — a fantastic effort.

Each day we moved forward, reaching out to each other and to friends and family in trouble on other Islands, offering whatever we could. Middle Caicos has five churches and a very devout population. Praise and thanks to a loving God echoed constantly in conversation, and an earnest appreciation of the simple life we share was much in evidence.

By early October the worst of the flooding was over, shingles had been replaced, schools reopened, the causeway debris bulldozed away and a rough bumpy roadway re-connected us to North Caicos. The fall passed as momentum was slowly regained for projects underway on Middle Caicos. Remarkably, these projects included four residential homes, two private commercial buildings, the ongoing government complex, a major study of the “pine yard” and the revival of a development agreement in Half Creek. We had four different contractors on their jobs, workers coming in from North by day and a current of optimism palpable as the projects grew toward completion. The local cable company restrung lines and the local realtor office remained open throughout! While the world economic outlook grew dim, great activity was in progress on Middle Caicos, the “little” island that can!

Daniel's Cafe in Conch Bar, Middle Caicos

As the 2008/9 tourist season moved forward, we met it head-on. The annual Valentine’s Day Cup festival in February proved the point — life on Middle Caicos was vibrant, healthy and happy. Day trips were promoted including the unique Conch Bar caves, local lunches, traditional handcrafts and a dazzling day of wide open scenery. In March, 2009 a well beloved eatery re-opened in brand-new premises on the seashore, and Daniel’s Café continues to serve mouthwatering cracked conch to those in the know. In April, 2009 the Middle Caicos Co-op opened its own shop, returning to Conch Bar ten years after it began! (The hurricanes had destroyed the shop in Providenciales and the co-op used the opportunity to re-claim its original home.) Middle Caicos, now and always, offers much to explore, along with a literal “breath of fresh air” and aura of peace, whether for a day or for a week and both tourists and TCI residents find a warm welcome.

Middle Caicos is a unique place, with those choosing to live there following their own rhythm, their own drummer, their own dreams . . . and building a modern lifestyle and sustainable economy in their own way. The future path of Middle Caicos is firmly in their capable hands.

The Middle Caicos Co-op Studio and Outlet sells traditional straw-work, modern art and a variety of handcrafts from a network of 60 island artisans. Wholesale, retail and custom orders are welcome. The store in Conch Bar is open Tuesday to Saturday from 10 AM to 4 PM.

For more information, call 946-6132 or 231-4884 or visit www.middlecaicos.biz.

Preserving Turks & Caicos’ historical archives.

By Dr. Neal V. Hitch, Director, Turks & Caicos National Museum

Photos Courtesy Turks & Caicos National Museum

This paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Society of American Archivists on August 15, 2009, as part of a symposium on sustaining Caribbean archives. The theme of the symposium was the difficulty of sustaining archives in an area of the world where the climate is harsh and heritage preservation is not a cultural priority.

Remains of Turks & Caicos Government archives in 1997

For many years, there has been an idea of a government archives somewhere on Grand Turk. It was housed in the post office, and then moved to the old prison after the new prison was completed. When the old prison was restored for a cruise ship visitor attraction, the archive was moved to the fire truck garage behind the old police station on Middle Street. This is now a restaurant. Many people on Grand Turk tell stories of seeing archive materials shoveled into the back of a pickup truck. Others tell stories of large personal collections that a few individuals have. What is known for sure is that the archives people remember have become smaller, and smaller, and . . .

Government archives

In 1983, James H. Neal, under the auspices of the Caribbean Research Foundation, completed a partial inventory of the government archives that were located in the basement of the post office. The inventory was carried out by 14 volunteers, who paid their own way to get to Grand Turk and who worked for six weeks with no compensation. The intention of the project was to arrange, prepare, and appraise the records for a national archive, which was to be organized at the end of the project.

The project had two goals: 1) “to give the Government access to records of permanent value which are no longer maintained in active files;” and 2) “to make available to the citizens of the Turks & Caicos as well as to the broader scholarly community, the raw material for historical writing and teaching.” (Neal, p. 4)

When work began, it soon became apparent that the Government archival collection was too large for the goal of conservation and appraisal. What was accomplished was the survey of open records on the basement shelves. Canvas bags filled with records were left for a future survey. At the end of the project the archivists created an inventory of what was surveyed.

Included in this inventory are over 2,000 titles, representing thousands of records. These included: Presidential Correspondence 1862, 1878; Damage to Waterloo when President Campbell left: 1873; Appointment of President Misick; American Seaman vs. Crown, Wreck of the Frigate “Severn,” 1858; Blue Hill Inhabitants; Puerto Plata Fire; references to Grand Turk in 1865: 1870-71; Question of doubloons as legal tender: 1881-1882.  This is just a selected few. The list of records that were here is impressive.

The conclusion of the project offered insight to the quality of the collection. Dr. Neal recommended that permanent storage for the archives should be found, an archives committee be established, and a professional archivist be hired by the Government to manage the vast collection of historical documents.

Further, it was concluded that the documents presented a truly unique history. It was understood that “records in various repositories in the United Kingdom might be used to document the story of the Turks & Caicos politically . . . the records on Grand Turk tell the story of the people of the Turks and Caicos.” These records represented the “story of schools and hospitals, storms and drought, families and churches, merchants and workers, a mosaic of generations of people of different walks of life which is responsible for what the Turks and Caicos are today.”  (Neal, p. 18)

The most valuable archival materials found in the James Neal survey were removed from the basement of the post office and “placed in the Victoria Public Library for safekeeping.” This included 96 file folders of material from the “Presidential era” which were stored in eight archival document cases. The library is not set up to be an archive nor do they have facilities for conservation or preservation of historical material. These archival boxes were stored in the attic where they got wet, were infested with bugs, and eventually disposed of.

Barry Dressel, then-director of TCI's National Museum, moves the archives in 1997.

In 1997, Barry Dressel, then director of the museum, moved the collection from the post office basement to the old prison and completed work trying to stabilize what was left of the collection. The archive consisted of plastic bags full of ledgers, letter books, and miscellaneous records. The collection has never been part of the museum, but from 2001 to 2005 Nigel Sadler, director of the museum, tried to monitor the remaining documents. Sadler also wrote several reports on the prospects of creating a sustainable archive. In 2002 he issued a report entitled “Development of the Old Police Station, Middle Street, Grand Turk,” which discussed a plan for renovating this unused government building into the archives. This report was widely circulated, but still today this building sits unused and neglected.

As a British colony, meticulous records were kept in the Turks & Caicos. It seems that recent local governments have not valued this historical record to the point of investing in its preservation. The Turks & Caicos are not unique in this loss of historical archives. The problem, however, is that because the country is so small, when a record or manuscript is lost it is usually the only one of its kind. Certainly, the management and storage of the government archives has not resulted in a sustainable archive.

Other historical records throughout the country are in the hands of private individuals. This is also not a sustainable situation for historical records. I have heard of records being found on the dump in Salt Cay and removed to the United States by a private individual. Archival records may have been saved like this, however, they typically will not survive through the next generation. People are very unwilling to part with their “treasures” no matter how they might have come by them.

To illustrate I will tell a story. Two years ago, a gentleman came to see me at the museum. He told me of important historical documents that he had that “he would never give to the museum.” Then he talked about a slave registry for the Turks & Caicos listing the names and occupations of every enslaved person in the country. He said he had seen this and knew the person who had it, but it had been gone for several years and no longer existed. Unless historical documents are placed in a public institution where they can be preserved, they will most certainly eventually be lost.

Though there has been talk about it for many years, today there is no national archive in the Turks & Caicos Islands and there is great doubt whether there is enough archival material left to create one.

The National Museum and archives

More of the TCI's archives as left in 1997.

The Turks & Caicos National Museum is the only national institution with a mission, mandate, and a collections management plan that is aimed at the long-term preservation of archives and archival material. Though we are not a government entity, we have a small amount of historical archives that have trickled into the museum since 1991. The museum has not necessarily collected this material, but when it comes into our hands it is conserved, stored, and preserved.

On September 6 and 7, 2008, the island of Grand Turk was hit by a category 5 hurricane. This is where the exhibits, offices, archives, and storage facilities of the museum are located. Over 80% of the buildings on Grand Turk sustained damage. The museum and archives building sustained minimal damage. Not a single collections piece or any archival materials were lost. To a large degree, this owed to the design of our facilities and the successful implementation of our hurricane plan.

The major issue dealt with from a conservation standpoint was the lack of electricity for nine weeks. Humidity levels were very high but staff opened the buildings to get as much air flow as possible through the labs and storage areas.

Archives at the museum

Archival collections at the National Museum that do exist are made more valuable by the fact that so much has been lost. Many of the collections, however, are uncataloged and consist of multiple and often random letters and documents.

One of the best collections of historical correspondence is titled: “A List of Documents found Outside the Old Prison on the Ground. July 2005.” This uncataloged collection was rescued and conserved by Nigel Sadler. The collection contains two boxes of miscellaneous official correspondence during the 1850s and 1860s. The collection includes letters and affidavits about shipwrecks, references to military defenses, and letters about the salt ponds on Grand Turk.

As part of the Pine Cay Project “Be Your Own Curator” grant, many of these letters were scanned and transcribed as part of a new museum exhibit entitled “Read Your Own History.” Some of the letters in the collection turned out to be gems.

A letter dated 17th May, 1850 addressed concerns from the United States Consulate about the “urgency of the immediate erection of a light-house on the Northern Bluff of Grand Turk.” The Consul had been informed that the insurance on vessels coming through the Turks Passage had increased dramatically in Boston and New York. The Consul also pointed out that several wrecks had “taken place at night in remarkably fine weather.” The lighthouse would be erected two years later. (Forth, 1850).

Another document, dated 1862, is a petition for increasing the defenses of Grand Turk. The letter states “that these islands were many years ago in a good state of defense by having a number of Forts or Batteries on various advantageous points along the seaboard.” It also references “the six serviceable 24 pound cannons at present at Grand Turk.” (Report, 1862). These must be the cannons that now sit in front of the post office, which with their trunnions and light holes intact could still be considered serviceable.

The petition was put together in 1862 at the beginning of the American Civil War. The reason for the petition was to keep merchant ships from the “Federal states of America” safe from a “ship of war” that might be stationed in the Turks Passage. This owed to the fact that since the lighthouse was erected, hundreds of ships were now using the Turks Passage each year.

These stories are in the histories told by cab drivers and tour guides as they drive cruise ship passengers around Grand Turk. These few letters in the collection at the National Museum are the real historical record. They are the proof of the stories.

The few records that are left from the government archive are an indication of the strength of the archive. They may also be an indication of what has been lost in the Turks & Caicos Islands. Even if the archives still exist somewhere hidden in a dark corner, the loss is that they have not been publicly accessible for the last few years when tourism has become a dominant portion of the economy. A sustainable archive is directly related to the heritage tourism portion of a sustainable tourism economy.

Sources

James H. Neal, Colonial Archives Project: Grand Turk Island, Summer 2003. The Caribbean Research Foundation, Washington, D.C., 2003.

Nigel Sadler, Development of the Old Police Station, Middle Street, Grand Turk: Providing a Valuable Asset, Turks & Caicos National Museum, Revised September 2002.

Frederick Forth, Grand Turk, 17th May 1850, TCNM.

Report of a committee of officers on the defense of Turks Islands, 17th January, 1862, TCNM.

TCI’s premier professional center opens.

By Kathy Borsuk ~ Photos By Claire Parrish

It’s hard to travel on Leeward Highway and not admire the attractive new three-story professional complex (across the road from Central Square) that sets the stage for Providenciales’ own “Miracle Mile.”

The Courtyard Plaza is TCI's premier professional center.

Completed on schedule early this year, The Courtyard Plaza — designed by local company Conservative Architects — is one of the island’s most attractive properties, an intriguing combination of cornices, arched windows and entryways and hexagonal lines, with the appealing two-toned facade crisply accented with gold-brown shutters, white frames and wrought-iron light fixtures. Bright bursts of colorful landscaping and stately palms complete the picture. The building embraces a peaceful garden courtyard at the back, the ideal spot for enjoying a quiet break from a busy day.

With this first phase nearly sold out, The Courtyard Plaza offers a number of benefits for the astute business professional.  Jeffrey Miick, developer, explains, “Our plan was to create a positive, professional atmosphere in which to conduct business, whether retail or commercial. Everything was designed around this goal. The suites, which come in a variety of sizes from 862 to nearly 3,000 sq. ft., are strata-titled, so you can either own your own space, building equity as you grow, or purchase a suite as an investment and lease it out, taking advantage of our rental management program. Each suite has a built-in kitchenette and restroom and zoned air-conditioning. Hurricane-impact windows eliminate the need for shutters and the security/fire safety system is already in place. Units on the ground floor are ideal for retail businesses, with large storefront windows and easy customer access. Elevators service the second and third floors and we’ve designed the parking area for good traffic flow, with ample, extra-wide spaces. I’m really proud of how well this has turned out and the response of our owners had been overwhelmingly positive.”

The Courtyard Plaza is anchored by the home offices of Norstar Group Ltd., the project builder; Palm Ventures, its developer and several of the development’s partners — virtually guaranteeing the importance of a good impression and well-managed property. Other spaces are occupied by a wide variety of local businesses that serve the Turks & Caicos Islands.

The Courtyard Plaza scores high in accessibility and practicality. On the main (and only) highway between the airport and most tourist destinations, its position is highly visible and heavily travelled, with all-important access from both sides of the road. A large lit sign lists all the businesses. And for those who have to do business, it is central to the main branches of all banks, South Dock, customs, many government departments and major grocery stores.

As I toured the complex, I admired the solid, well-built construction apparent throughout . . . along with the breathtaking views from most offices, especially those on the third floor, from which I could see all the way to the south ocean shore. Amy Thiel, marketing manager, explained other advantages that make a Courtyard Plaza investment a wise decision, “We’re eager to help both resident businesses or overseas investors finish their suite to perfection. We have in-house architectural services to design the floor plan that best suits their needs and have special build-out price incentives.”

A mirror-image of the existing building is planned for the cleared space next door. When completed, the twin buildings will embrace a large central garden courtyard — complete with another magnificent fountain and walkways — to add to the pleasant, open space. Interested parties are encouraged to ask about special pre-construction pricing and financing options. Spaces for purchase or lease in the original building are also available.

It’s said that success builds on success. The Courtyard Plaza’s track record ranks a blue-ribbon; its future as the country’s premier professional center seems assured.

For an appointment to view the property, phone 649 941 8958 or email info@CourtyardPlazaTCI.com. For more information, visit www.CourtyardPlazaTCI.com.

An authentic French boulangerie comes to Providenciales.

By Kathy Borsuk ~ Photos By Claire Parrish

Legend has it that the name for Providenciales comes from the exaltations of French shipwreck survivors upon seeing this “providence of God.” Folks who are connoisseurs of French baked goods are sure to make similar exclamations of happiness when they visit the new storefront Caicos Bakery.

Among my best memories of a bike tour in Provence were the times my father and I would stop in a small village and head for the local boulangerie. Whether it was for croissants at breakfast time, a loaf of French bread or rolls for lunch or sweet pastries in the afternoon, we were never disappointed. As soon as I opened the door to the new Caicos Bakery, tucked in Caicos Café Plaza, I had a sensory flashback to that beloved trip.

It started with that one-of-a-kind mouthwatering fragrance of baking that seems to fill the air with a visible presence — a blend of yeasty bread and sweeter cake smells combined. The charming shop looked authentic too, with selections of fresh bread loaves, baguettes and rolls placed in baskets along one wall, and the colorful and tempting pastries, muffins, croissants, quiche slices, sliced cakes and other treats neatly arranged behind a glass display case.

Eric Cuvillon and Tatjana Milovanovic display Caicos Bakery's selections.

Tatjana Milovanovic is usually behind the counter, cheerfully serving her hungry customers, and when she carefully “gift-wrapped” my selections in decorated paper and ribbon, I had to double-check to make sure there were palm trees and not plane trees (prevalent in France) outside the door.

Frédéric Cuvillon and his brother Eric opened Caicos Bakery in July at the request of residents familiar with their baking skills. Frédéric has been baking traditional French breads and pastries for Providenciales resorts for 15 years from a small shop behind Caicos Café. He originally followed good friend Pierrik Marziou, owner of Caicos Café, to the Islands and supplied baked goods to 20 different local restaurants and resorts, including Bella Luna, Hemingways, Mango Reef and The Palms. Four years ago Eric joined him in the venture and the pair purchased the business. Between the two of them, they brought years of experience from their hometown of Paris. (Frédéric had been a baker in France for 16 years and Eric worked as chef at the infamous “Le Lido” on the Champs Elysées.) When a storefront opened in Caicos Plaza, they decided to take advantage of the opportunity and follow the advice of friends and residents who were fans of their fare.

The brothers were clear from the beginning that they intended to maintain a high standard of quality. This meant that everything had to be baked fresh every day and only seasonal fruits and other ingredients would be used. Eric explains, “There are no expiration dates here!”

As a result, when you bite into a flaky croissant, it melts in your mouth. Hearty farm boules combine a chewy crust with an airy interior. Danish and tarts are delicate and flaky, with fruit fillings and toppings bursting with color and flavor. Eric says he has some customers come every day just for the tender, cream-filled Neapolitans, while crunchy-soft meringues have their own loyal fans. (Times of the Islands Advertising Manager Claire Parrish craves the blueberry muffins, chocolate croissants and coffee eclairs!) Cheesecake slices melt in your mouth, leaving a light after-taste of flavor. Lunchgoers can stop by for slices of traditional French quiche, ham and cheese croissants or mini-pizza rounds.

Caicos Bakery's hearty bread loaves are baked fresh every morning.

With literally only word of mouth advertising, Eric says the storefront business has continued the bakery’s positive trend of the last four years, in spite of it opening during the traditionally slow summer season. In fact, the brothers are trying to get accustomed to juggling their restaurant/resort deliveries with preparing fresh items for the storefront. It has made for some very long days and very early morning hours!

Eric says the bakery also specializes in made-to-order wedding, birthday and special occasion cakes. “We are very flexible and creative regarding the cake flavors and fillings and can do just about anything our customers ask.” Voilà!

Caicos Bakery is located in Caicos Café Plaza. The shop is open with fresh bread at 7 AM and closes at 4:30 PM, daily except Sunday.

Grand Turk’s Bohio Dive Resort triumphantly rises after Hurricane Ike.

By Kathy Borsuk ~ Photos By Claire Parrish

The Bohio Resort on Grand Turk sprawls along secluded Pillory Beach.

Perfectly positioned on a sinuous curve of pristine Pillory Beach, Grand Turk’s Bohio Dive Resort has long prided itself on offering “simple elegance in paradise.” Offering an unmatched combination of beautiful natural surroundings, friendly, personal service, superb diving, a variety of other activities and a gourmet restaurant and lively beach bar, the Bohio stands out as the only “all in one place” vacation option in the nation’s capital. However, as owner/managers Kelly Shanahan and Gerhard Hurst can attest, restoring the property from the destruction wrought by Hurricane Ike just one short year ago has been a life-changing challenge.

After spending years working as an information technologist in London, Kelly Shanahan knew it was time for a career change. Self-described as a “mad keen diver,” the plan was to sell the house in the UK and buy a tiny dive operation, preferably some place suitably exotic. Her search for the perfect location took her to Grand Turk and through one of those quirks of fate, she bumped into another interested investor on the dive boat! By December 2005, it was a “done deal,” with several family members and friends coming on as partners to purchase the former Guanahani Hotel on the beach where some believe Columbus first set foot in the New World.

Although Kelly had virtually no experience in running a Caribbean dive resort, she took the “giant stride” and stepped in with confidence, determined to create a top-rate property of which she could be proud. She explains, “I was very naïve at the start of the project . . . what was I thinking of taking on the challenge of running a hotel, a restaurant and a dive operation? But it was that naïvety that made it possible.” Kelly wisely surrounded herself with experts, included her now-partner Gerhard, a South African gold and silver trader who came to “help with the books” as a friend of a shareholder. He is also a PADI-certified dive instructor and never left!

One of Bohio Dive Resort’s many assets is the lovely, pristine, white sand beach along which it is stretched. Elegantly shaded by casuarina pines, it offers guests the simple luxury of relaxing beside the jeweled colors of the sea and the chance to snorkel among a marine wonderland just steps away. Kelly explains, “The snorkeling in the natural bay in front of the resort is often as good as diving on the reef. You’ll see juvenile fish and critters in the rocky ledges, nurse sharks, rays and turtles who come in for a rest . . . guests spend hours sightseeing.”

Although off the beaten track, Grand Turk is consistently ranked as one of the world’s top diving destinations and Pillory Beach among the best diving beaches . . . both for good reason. Grand Turk’s amazing wall (the Grand Canyon of the Caribbean) is only 1,000 feet from the beach, with the best dive sites minutes away. With the western shoreline protected as a marine reserve, divers have access to rare black coral, giant manta rays, turtles, sharks and dolphins. Historical shipwrecks are close-by too.

One of Kelly’s initial goals was to offer “Caribbean diving/beach holidays with a difference,” and to complement the superb diving, she says, “We’re definitely not a ‘boot camp’. We try to be very flexible about schedules and divers’ needs. All you have to do is step out of your room onto the boat, where your kit is already loaded and ready to go. We are a certified PADI facility and have PADI instructors for all levels of divers.”

Not coincidentally, Bohio Resort’s most typical visitors are hard-core divers, primarily from North America, and many are repeat guests. They enjoy the laid-back atmosphere and clean, comfortable rooms (only 16) with private terrace ocean views  — along with the staff’s goal of “making your experience as happy and hassle free as possible.” At day’s end, guests are eager to join locals around the beach bar for a famous Green Flash cocktail or at the beachfront Guanahani Restaurant — known island-wide for its excellent and imaginative fare. Kelly explains, “Another priority when I arrived was to elevate the quality of the meals served here and make them interesting for our guests and Grand Turk residents, who have a limited selection of dining choices.”

Enter Executive Chef Jorika Mhende, a recent gift of Hurricane Ike (her previous employer has since closed). Kelly explains her blessing, “With years of experience cooking for African hunting camps and running her own restaurant and catering business, Jorika understands the challenges of maintaining top quality on a small island with limited resources and I love her can-do attitude! She just created a new menu which makes local food ‘smart’ . . . it’s made quite a splash on the island and our reputation draws tourists from the cruise ship port.” Every Thursday the restaurant hosts “A foreign á fare”; cuisines recently highlighted include Indian, Spanish, Greek, Italian and Thai. Dinners are complemented with an extensive wine list, cappuccinos and fine Cuban cigars to close.

The Bohio's oceanfront pool is the perfect place to relax.

Other ways to play at Bohio include sailing and kayaking, boat trips to nearby Gibbs Cay to hand-feed the stingrays, deep sea fishing trips, whale-watching excursions (during the winter months) or simply taking a bicycle and exploring Grand Turk’s fascinating blend of natural beauty and historical intrigue. There’s also a volleyball net on the beach, a lovely pool around which to sunbath and the popular sunset yoga classes, which, Kelly admits, often welcome as many men as women! Massages, manicures and pedicures can also be arranged at the local spa or in the comfort of your room.

When I visited the resort in July, 2009, Kelly and Gerhard had just returned from a well-deserved vacation off-island. They looked refreshed and so did the resort and its grounds. This was all the more amazing after I heard their personal Hurricane Ike story.

As most Turks & Caicos aficionados know, Category Five Hurricane Ike slammed into the Islands in early September 2008, close on the heels of water-logged Hurricane Hannah. What Hannah didn’t swamp in her rain deluge, Ike tried to blow away with 155 MPH winds. Grand Turk, Salt Cay and South Caicos bore the brunt of the storm, with many estimating that 80% of the properties on Grand Turk were damaged. Kelly and Gerhard woke up “the morning after” to find both roofs lifted from the guest suites buildings and the dive shop washed away, with many of the trees and bushes either uprooted or leaning precariously. (In fact, the only thing unaffected appears to have been the reef itself. Because the storm hit from due east, it was spared any damage.)

Kelly explains, “We had to make the decision to either pack-up and head back to the UK or rebuild.” Their determined spirit took over and Bohio was to “rise again.” Thanks to the efforts of a devoted team of Filipino builders, supportive shareholders, lots of “sweat equity” and even some loyal guests who came to volunteer in repair efforts, rebuilding began. Kelly recalls, “It took 22 men five days just to clear the debris from the resort. We had to do all the rebuilding with generators, as power to our area was not restored until November 28. It was a life-changing challenge that I’m not sure I want to face again in a hurry.”

However, by December 1, the first tourists arrived and Bohio and its staff were ready. The roof design on the guest building was improved, resulting in airy vaulted ceilings in the second floor rooms. The beach bar was rebuilt using downed power poles and christened “The Ike and Donkey” (the latter term referring to the island’s four-legged inhabitants, remnants of the once-thriving salt industry.)

There’s no doubt Bohio is back in business. Kelly reports solid bookings for late 2009/2010, as divers and holiday-makers look for a reasonably priced, intimate, friendly beachfront resort. It’s also becoming a popular place to have a wedding, with on-site wedding planners and spectacular crimson sunset backdrops on Pillory Beach.

Incidently, the name “Bohio” comes from the native Taino Indians’ word for “home.” Kelly and Gerhard have certainly earned the right to call it their own.

For more information or reservations, call 649 946 2135 or visit www.bohioresort.com.

Tracking Hurricanes Hanna and Ike.

By Marlon Hibbert, Scientific Officer, DECR

Hurricane Ike engulfs the Turks & Caicos Islands

It is no secret that 2008 was an extraordinary year for the Turks & Caicos Islands. During a one week period we suffered the onslaught of two major hurricanes. They wreaked havoc on the people of the Islands and came at a time when the global economy, and indeed the economy of our Islands, were on a downward spiral. Fast forward to August 2009, almost a year later, and some people in the country have still not recovered.

Hurricanes are driven by warm temperatures and Hurricanes Hanna and Ike were no exceptions. It is published that over the last 20 years or so, the average sea surface temperatures of the TCI have risen (Goreau et al 2007). These data were obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) long term records.

Here in the TCI, since May 2008 we have had the opportunity to track sea temperatures for ourselves. Four  Onset Co./HOBO® Pendant temperature/light data loggers were placed in two underwater locations at different  depths off Providenciales and West Caicos. Two meters were also installed in Grand Turk, but unfortunately, after the hurricanes had passed. Placed at depths varying from 142 to 38 feet, the meters were well positioned to record the effects of the hurricanes on the sea temperatures. After the hurricanes, the Providenciales and West Caicos meters were retrieved and the information analyzed in graphical form.

The results were astounding: at the locations in Grace Bay at depths of 105 feet and at 38 feet, temperatures fell from approximate highs of 30ºC to lows of 25ºC, a drop of more than 4ºC. This was also the trend at West Caicos where meters had been placed at 141 feet and at 42 feet. A few days later the same trend was observed for Hurricane Ike at both sites. As soon as temperatures were returning to normal levels after the passing of Hanna, the heat was sucked from the water again, dropping temperatures by an approximate 3ºC. Corresponding light levels were also reduced but, interestingly, took much longer to return to normal levels, indicating that the sediments that had been stirred up took a much longer time to settle out of the water column.

What does this mean for the coral reefs that are so crucial to the Turks & Caicos Islands? Corals exist and thrive in a very narrow temperature range and deviation from these temperatures can cause shock, mainly expressed in the form of bleaching. Bleaching occurs when corals expel their algal tenants resulting in a white appearance. This usually occurs with extended periods of higher than normal sea surface temperatures. (It must be said that other factors also play a role in coral bleaching with elevated temperatures being just one, though a major one.) Depending on the length of time that the corals are exposed to these drastic changes in temperature, bleaching may be partial or complete. Complete bleaching usually leads to coral mortality and dead coral supports reduced life. Corals also need light to grow; reduced light levels reduce the productivity of the corals and the ability to produce food, and essentially they come to a standstill.

Just like trees, corals display banding as measures of growth, and would likely show a very narrow growth band for period 2008/2009. Coupled with the shock reduction in temperature, lowering of light levels and increased sedimentation due to the hurricanes, the coral reef system in the Turks & Caicos suffered just as badly as their terrestrial counterparts and people.

Just as we are struggling to regain normalcy to our lives after the disruption of these devastating natural occurrences, so too are the wounded reefs putting up a fight. It is this fact that makes it even more important for users of these resources — fishermen, boaters, divers and snorkelers — to act wisely and in a manner consistent with the laws. Extra care at this time will give our reefs the opportunity to help themselves to regenerate naturally without adding to their stress levels.

As we continue to gather more information we are able to correlate this information to events that we see occurring on the reefs. In some cases it may help us to predict what may happen (more like an educated guess) on our reefs during future events.

If you are diving and recognize the onset of bleaching or any abnormalities of the reefs, let us know by contacting www.environment.tc. And remember, when diving leave only bubbles and take nothing but memories.

This emblematic mammal did not survive to Taíno times.

By Bill Keegan and Betsy Carlson

The sloth is the stupidest animal that can be found in the world, and is so awkward and slow in movement that it would require a whole day to go fifty paces. 1

Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, 1526

This is not the preface to a novel by Lawrence Sanders. Instead, we are going to discuss the mammals of the Caribbean. Previously we have noted that animals often are used as symbols for both positive and negative characteristics among humans (for example, “King Richard the Lionhearted”). In the islands we often see human and animal figurines on pottery vessels that are either “zoomorphic” (animal features) or “anthropomorphic” (human features ascribed to animals). We focused on the sloth because here we seem to have a negative human characteristic ascribed to the beast.

In the sixth century, Pope Gregory I (“The Great”) identified the seven deadly sins as lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, wrath, envy and pride. These sins have since received greater notoriety in Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” and more recently in the movies “Bedazzled” and “Seven.” The word “sloth” comes from the Latin “acedia,” which means an absence of caring. For the Pope, sloth was spiritual and/or actual apathy, putting off what God asks you to do, or not doing it at all. The slow and determined efforts of this large mammal, first encountered in Central and South America, made them the perfect poster child for this sin.

The sloth was extirpated before Taino societies developed.

Sloths have inhabited the Americas for millennia. In Florida there are fossil sloths that stood over 20 feet tall! Sloths (biological families Megalonychidae and Bradypodidae) are today found only in Central and South America, but they also occupied the larger Caribbean islands up to about 4,400 years ago. The fact that sloths survived in the Antilles long after they disappeared from most of the Americas (approximately 11,000 years ago) is an indication that humans had a hand in their extinction. Just as the giant sloths of Florida were exterminated shortly after the arrival of humans, new evidence from the insular Caribbean indicates that they suffered a similar fate (recently published by our colleague Dr. David Steadman). There has been 13 different species of sloths identified so far across the Caribbean islands (living on Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Curaçao), none of which survived the encounter with the first hunters to enter this region. Thus, there is no Taíno word for the gentle and slow-moving sloth because their populations were extirpated long before the Taíno societies developed. A similar extinction occurred with monkeys living on Jamaica, Cuba, and Hispaniola.

There seems to be an early Spanish fascination with the sloths of Tierra Firme (Central America). Oviedo wrote, “they are quadrupeds, and on each small foot they have four long claws webbed together like those of a bird, but neither the claws nor the feet will support the animal. The legs are so small and the body so heavy, that the animal almost drags its belly on the ground. At the end of the [tall and straight neck] it has a face very round, very much like that of an owl. Its eyes are small and round; its nose like that of a monkey. Its mouth is very small and it moves its neck from one side to another like a stupid thing. Its voice, heard only at night, is quite different of any other animal in the world. It can be heard singing six tones, one higher and louder than the next, and always in descending order: la, sol, fa, mi, re, ut.” The “Sound of Music” sung in reverse!

Oviedo also reported, “No one can find out what this animal eats. I had one in my home, and from my observations I have come to believe that this animal lives on air. The sloth has never been seen to eat anything, but it turns its head and mouth into the wind more than any other direction, from which one can see that it is very fond of air.” We now know that sloths are omnivores that eat insects, small lizards and carrion, but their main diet is buds, tender shoots and leaves, primarily of the Cecropia tree. Leaves provide very little energy. Sloths have very complex stomachs to digest these plant foods, and maintain a very low metabolic rate and low body temperature. They were the largest package of meat available to the earliest human hunters in the Caribbean, and their slow demeanor made them easy to capture.

The Caribbean islands have been described as having a depauperate terrestrial fauna (a fancy way of saying that there are not a lot of land animals). Recent paleontological studies have shown that this was not always the case. Crocodiles, iguanas, tortoises, and dozens of birds disappeared from many islands soon after humans arrived. With regard to mammals, Charles Woods and Gary Morgan (formerly with the Florida Museum of Natural History) have identified what they call the 12% solution. Only 12% of the mammals that lived in the Caribbean in the past still survive today; the other 88% were driven to extinction, while new mammals have been introduced during historic times. The Taínos only had 11 names for mammals — four are for different kinds of dogs, five are rodents, and the last two live in the sea.

The main mammals of interest during Taíno times were the hutía and the cori (guinea pig). Hutía are a cat-size rodent that was endemic to many Caribbean islands, but there is also evidence that the Taínos and their ancestors moved them to other islands where they were penned and managed as a food source. There is evidence that guinea pigs were introduced from South America and moved around the islands in a similar way. Oviedo described the guinea pigs as similar to rabbits or young conies, noting, “they are not vicious and are very pretty. Some are entirely white, while others are white spotted with red and other colors.”

By the time Europeans arrived these animals were in such short supply that they were reserved as food for the chiefs. Although one might assume that only the chiefs were allowed to eat them, they played a more important role in the redistribution of foods during periodic feasts. In other words, the chiefs may have controlled their distribution, but everyone who attended the feast was allowed to eat them.

Populations of hutía can still be found in Jamaica (where they are called “coneys”) and Cuba. In fact, the U.S. Naval Station at Guantanámo Bay has a huge problem with these furry critters. Populations have grown dramatically within the boundaries of the base where they have no natural predators. One complication for the naval personnel is that these rodents commonly gnaw through the brake and coolant lines of their vehicles, so all of the cars and trucks have chicken wire attached to the chasse. Despite population control efforts, the “banana rat” (so named for their banana-shaped scat) is thriving.

There is a similar problem in the Bahamas. About 20 years ago the Bahamas National Trust decided to relocate hutías from the last natural population on the Plana Cays (near Acklins Island) to a cay in the Exumas called Warderick Wells. The favored food of hutía seems to be the bark of young trees, and the result has been nearly complete deforestation of the cay. Population studies have shown that in spite of the fact that hutía produce few offspring per year, the adults apparently never die! The population has grown at an exponential rate for the past 20 years. A further complication is that originally it was believed that hutía couldn’t swim and that it would be possible to confine them to a single island. Yet today there are hutía living on two cays adjacent to Warderick Wells and their voracious appetite is having similar devastating consequences for the vegetation. The Bahamas National Trust Scientific Advisory Committee is now discussing the challenge of saving an endangered species while preserving the local vegetation.

Rodents have long been part of the human diet. For the Taínos the hutía was a tasty treat reserved for special occasions. Today we view rodents as disgusting and distasteful (as lampooned in the Monty Python skit where “rat” was every other item on the menu, not to mention Spam). Our disgust with rats (rodents) comes from our experiences with the Norwegian rat (Rattus rattus). Not only do they pilfer crops, they also carry a variety of diseases, including the bubonic plague. Eating our food supply is one thing, but killing millions of people is quite another. [But we like mice, especially in Florida, where Mickey contributes millions of dollars per year to the state’s economy.]

The Norwegian rat was a stowaway on Columbus’ first voyage. During the excavation of the archaeological site at En Bas Saline, Haiti, Dr. Kathleen Deagan found that many of the animal bones in this site attributed to Columbus’ first settlement in the New World were from rats and pigs. Current evidence suggests that the Spanish contingent at En Bas Saline is Fort La Navidad, which was established after the sinking of the Santa Maria. As Kathy describes it, she found the evidence for the first rat to abandon a sinking ship in the Americas!

Archaeological and paleontological studies have shown that there was never a great diversity of mammals in the Caribbean islands. The one exception may be bats. This situation changed with the arrival of Europeans who brought horses, pigs, donkeys, new types of dogs, cats, rats, etc. These new mammals have had a huge impact on the local cultures and environments. Lacking competitors, and preying on animals that had lacked other predators for centuries, they transformed the Caribbean landscape. In many places they are now considered pests, and local governments are looking for humane ways to eradicate them. In essence we are looking at the potential for a new wave of mass extinction in the islands.

Returning to the underappreciated sloth, Oviedo wrote, “I have never seen such an ugly animal or one that is more useless.” But we think sloths actually have a sort of “Teddy bear” appearance, and are surprised that they have not achieved the same status as koalas, baby seals, and lemurs in the cute, cuddly, stuffed animal market.

Even though the sloth was literally “eaten off” of these islands over 4,000 years ago, this animal reminds us of what many of us love about life in the islands, particular the ritual of slowing down, turning to face the eastern tradewinds, and slowly digesting your evening meal. The animal may be gone, but they remain emblematic. The modern attraction to the Caribbean islands can at times be pretty well summed up by the seven deadly sins.  Sloth, while on vacation, is the least objectionable.

(We would be remiss if we did not also mention the seven heavenly virtues:  chastity, temperance, charity, diligence, patience, kindness, and humility. We will leave the Boy Scout law out of this for the time being.)

1Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, Natural History of the West Indies (translated and edited by Sterling A. Stoudemire), Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959 [original 1526].

Dr. Bill Keegan is Curator of Caribbean Archaeology at the Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Dr. Betsy Carlson is Senior Archaeologist with Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc. (SEARCH) in Jonesville, Florida, and affiliate faculty at the Florida Museum of Natural History. They are the authors of Talking Taino, published by The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, ISBN – 13: 978-0-8173-5508-1.

Developing a sea ethic.

By Richard Plate and Marta Calosso ~ Photos By Marta Calosso

In 2008 we wrote an article for Times of the Islands providing an introduction to Aldo Leopold’s land ethic. Briefly, Leopold suggested that humans increase their sense of ethics to include “soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land.” The article suggested ways in which we might translate Leopold’s ideas into a sea ethic. In this article, we look more closely at one specific aspect of Leopold’s ethic — what he called “thinking like a mountain.”

Leopold introduces this idea by describing an experience he had in the early 1900s as a forest ranger, coming upon a wolf mother and several cubs. “In those days,” he explains, “we had never heard of passing up a chance to kill a wolf. I thought that because fewer wolves meant more deer, that no wolves would mean hunters’ paradise.”

Wolves remain one of the most feared predators for many in the western United States because of their ability to harm humans and human property (e.g., cattle). But wolves also seem to evoke fear that goes beyond these potential threats and have a long history in human perception as the archetypal monster in the wilderness.

Can you think of any marine species that evoke a similar fear? If you were asked this question, say 150 years ago, you likely would have answered “whales.” While whales have benefitted for several decades from public awareness campaigns and as the center of many marine shows and major motion pictures, their sheer size prompted stories from sailors about the flesh-hungry leviathans that awaited humans in the deep sea.

Encounters between whaling ships and their prey fueled these ideas. Turks & Caicos Islands historian H.E. Sadler describes an encounter in which a TCI whaling ship failed to avoid a tail strike from the hunted whale, “Some of the men jumped overboard in time, but others were scattered by the blow which smashed the boat in half.”

But whales probably weren’t the first animals to come to mind when I mentioned “monster in the wilderness.” Today a different class of animals holds the title of most feared creatures of the sea: sharks.

Thinking like an ocean

After emptying his rifle into the pack of wolves, Leopold walked down to the wolf mother just in time to “watch the fierce green fire dying in her eyes.” He realized then that wolves too had an important role to play in the larger picture, thinking about the ecological function of those wolves — controlling the deer population.

Without the top-down control from the wolves, the deer population would continue to grow until there was eventually nothing left to eat. The result would be a forest largely defoliated by deer and deer dying of starvation. Leopold came to suspect that “just as a deer herd lives in mortal fear of wolves, so does a mountain live in mortal fear of its deer.”

Today we know that not only do wolves act as a top-down control on deer populations, but they also pick out the weak, the sick, or the old as their targets. Analogous functions can be seen in many apex predators, the term used to describe species whose adults are generally not preyed upon by other species. Typically, apex predators sit at the end of long food chains, so population changes in apex predators cascade through the rest of the ecosystem.

As you may have guessed, many species of sharks are apex predators. Like wolves, they tend to feed on easy-to-capture prey, such as weak, sick, very old or very young individuals. By feeding on sick or weak fish, sharks not only help keep diseases under control, but also allow more fit individuals to survive and reproduce. More fit adults will produce more fit young, and so on.

Sharks also play a role in maintaining biodiversity in the ocean, by preventing explosion of single species that might cause other species to die out. So when we make changes to their populations, we can expect to see further changes in the ecosystems where they hunt. These changes are unpredictable, but here’s an example of what the effects can look like.

A study published in Science magazine in 2007 showed that major reductions in large shark species in the North Atlantic resulted in increased populations of their prey species, including cownose rays (a type of stingray). With the depletion of several large shark species in the North Atlantic, cownose ray populations have been shown to have increased as much as 1,000% in some places.

Cownose rays feed largely on mollusks, including scallops. Scientists have suggested that the collapse of the scallop industry in Chesapeake Bay can be attributed to the increased predation pressure from cownose rays. This is what is meant by the cascading effect: a decrease in large sharks leads to an increase in their common prey (cownose rays) which then leads to a decrease in scallops. Other scientists have linked the decline in mollusks to decreased water quality in coastal systems. Mollusks are filter feeders, meaning they filter their food out of the water. With fewer mollusks around, less water gets filtered.

So it is not only the marine ecosystems that benefit from sharks. Humans benefit too. We might say, following Leopold, that while cownose rays may live in mortal fear of sharks, coastal systems live in mortal fear of too many cownose rays.

From fear to fascination

Dr. John Claydon observes a pregnant nurse shark resting on the seagrass.

Sharks are impressive predators, powerful and elegant as they swim through their domain with absolute confidence. But these days that confidence is misplaced. In truth, sharks are not apex predators any longer. They have yielded that role, like so many other apex predators, to humans.

Many species of sharks have declined rapidly over the last few decades, some declining by more than 80% in 20 years due to overfishing. Unlike other fish, sharks are particularly vulnerable to exploitation because they grow slowly, mature late in life, and reproduce infrequently, giving birth to only a few pups each time.

If sharks continue to be killed at the present rate, many shark populations may be permanently damaged or even disappear. But sharks lack the furry cuteness of a harbor seal or the playful charisma of a dolphin. They are seen as killing machines despite the fact that humans are very rarely their targets. Consequently, shark conservationists have a difficult time garnering public support for their cause. In fact, sharks are not the “killing machines” that have been portrayed in movies and books. They are simply predators who have managed to persist since before the dinosaurs.

Sharks in the Turks & Caicos Islands

The Turks & Caicos Islands are home to a number of shark species, including reef, nurse, lemon, tiger, hammerhead, and bull sharks. There are no regulations that formally protect sharks in TCI waters. However, sharks are not the primary target of any fisheries.

The Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezii) is the most commonly seen on reefs, where it can be found swimming gracefully in the water column. Measuring up to 3 metres (10 feet) long, it is one of the largest apex predators in the reef ecosystem.

The nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) usually sleeps under ledges during the day, and it is active in the night. The name comes from the feeding habit of biting down and slowly sucking the prey (generally crabs, lobsters, and mollusks). During mating season, adult nurse sharks aggregate in large numbers (up to 50 individuals) over seagrass flats off some TCI cays.

Marta Calosso holds a young lemon shark prior to tagging in the waters off South Caicos.

While adult lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris) mostly live on reefs and are rarely encountered, baby lemon sharks are commonly found in mangrove habitats all over TCI. Lemon shark populations are dependent on shallow coastal habitat, often fringed by the red mangroves that act as “nursery areas.” Advantages of nurseries include abundance of food and protection from larger predators. Unfortunately, nursery areas are often vulnerable habitats due to their proximity to land and exposure to human activities (e.g. increase of coastal development). Appropriate management of these important areas is a conservation priority and more information on the use of nurseries by apex predators such as lemon shark is needed.

Juvenile lemon sharks have been a research focus at the School for Field Studies, Center for Marine Resource Studies in South Caicos for several years. Our aim is to look at potential nursery areas for lemon sharks around South Caicos. Specifically, we are assessing the distribution of juvenile lemon sharks, their sizes, their growth rates and residency over time. Finally, we are looking at all of these factors in comparison to other lemon shark study sites in the world.

Present knowledge of lemon sharks originates from only a few locations and therefore may not be representative of a species with such a wide distribution (western Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and west coast of Africa). For a more comprehensive understanding of lemon sharks, further research in alternative locations such as the TCI is needed. This would enhance our ability to conserve this threatened species, especially in the face of rapid development occurring worldwide.

Putting it into practice

We are not suggesting that you attempt to befriend the next shark you see. We hope that seeing them elicits caution and awe, not fear. Leopold’s epiphany did not lead him to go live with wolves. But he did stop shooting them. And he became a proponent of ecosystem level wildlife management (i.e., valuing species for their contribution to the health of the ecosystem).

Developing a sea ethic means seeing sharks not as menacing monsters, but as valuable members of the marine community. There are some who think that a sharkless ocean would mean a swimmer’s paradise. That is because they base their views on fear and misperceptions, and they have not learned to think like an ocean.

Scholars disagree about whether our fear of sharks stems from deep-seated psychological tendencies or mass-media coverage of sharks that has largely emphasized sensationalism over accuracy. In truth both probably play a role.

Whatever the cause, these fears are based largely on misperceptions. We might take a lesson from Leopold for hints about getting past these fears and understanding sharks for what they are: important members of marine ecosystems.

It’s worth noting here that there are over 350 species of sharks, most of which do not fit the fear-inspiring vision that most people picture. For example, the cigar shark tops out at six inches, hardly material for the next Hollywood thriller. Globally, we’ve averaged about five fatal shark attacks per year for the last several years. According to the International Shark Attack File at the University of Florida this means that you are about 100 times more likely to die from a lightning strike than from a shark attack.  However, you are only slightly more likely to die from a sand-hole cave-in at the beach than a shark attack. For more interesting statistics, see www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/attacks/relarisk.htm.