Uncovering the mysteries of the Caicos Islands plantations.

By Dr. Charlene Kozy

The Turks & Caicos Islands, especially North and Middle Caicos, became a haven for banished American Loyalists after the Revolutionary War in the United States. They were good citizens in the British Colonies and remained loyal to the King during the revolt. Land in the Bahamas was given to them to compensate for land that was lost after their banishment. Some 100,000 fled the wrath of the new American government; the northern Loyalists went to Canada and the southern Loyalists from the Carolinas and Georgia came to the Bahamas.

Today, scrubby brush, cactus, and trees cover the ruins of a brief plantation period unlike anything the  Caicos Islands had ever experienced. Although the physical remains are few and in poor condition, the records in the Bahamas Registry at Nassau and other historical data make it possible to know much about that time. Seventy-two land grants were found in the Registry on the two islands; it is possible that some were never exercised and some were sold to other grantees. Wills, appraisals, eye witness accounts and public documents reveal a highly developed society.

Geographically, the plantations lay along the northern coast of Middle and North Caicos. They extended to the west coast of North Caicos and included Parrot Cay. Almost all plantations were bounded on one or more sides by the sea. The higher elevation on the northern coast made agriculture possible, while the lower elevation on the southern coasts created swamps and wetlands. Also, the higher elevation presented a clear view of the sea which would serve many purposes — cooler climate and a vantage point against intruders. A road called the Royal Road or King’s Road connected the plantations and gave access to the landings for supplies to enter and for cotton to be exported. Parts are identifiable today.

Daniel McKinnen, an Englishman, made a voyage in 1802 “to notice the principle islands enumerated” and left an eyewitness account of a thriving community on the Caicos Islands. He described the soil as having “some spots of clay . . .” and as being “ . . . the most esteemed of any in the Bahamas.” He found two sugar plantations but acknowledged that the staple commodity produced was cotton.

West Indian fruits were growing “in perfection,” especially oranges. McKinnen praised the new inhabitants for their “indefatigable effort” in planting and building roads suitable for carriages despite the rocky land.

It is notable that the Taino Indians had been the  only previous inhabitants and were not agriculturists but traders in salt. Almost 300 years had passed since their occupancy and the soil had not been over-cultivated.

The plantation period on the Caicos was colourful because of the settlers themselves and the plantations they created. After 1789, plantations mushroomed along the northern coasts; the planters, “ . . . men of  capital, brought their families, slaves, livestock, knowledge of plantation cultivation, arts and crafts, musical instruments, books and all else needed to create a self-contained home life and farming hierarchy in this new British community.”

McKinnen’s eyewitness account is brief and incomplete in some areas. Through the various estate appraisals and inventories recorded in the Bahama Registry much more detail can be added. McKinnen mentioned only two species of food animals raised on the Caicos — horned cattle and hogs. In the inventories, horses were found on all the plantations. John Bell, owner of Increase Plantation on Middle Caicos, had a total of ten horses, including four mares, two fillies and a “horse colt.” Cows, calves and bulls were mentioned in the inventories along with turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, and geese.

Most plantations were known by a name, and John Bell had two plantations — Increase on Middle Caicos and Industry across a narrow strip on Windward Going Through on East Caicos. William Farr called his 380 acre plantation in North Caicos by the name of Cottage. Wade Stubbs named a portion of his holdings Clifton and later owned Wade’s Green on North Caicos and Chesire Hall on Providenciales. John M. Tattnall’s 600 acre plantation was called Bonaventure. William Forbes owned the Retreat Plantation. John Petty named his 800 acres Brough Hill. Stephen De Lancey’s 900 acres on North Caicos was named Greenwich.

The appraisals listed newly invented “wind gins” by Joseph Eve, an American Loyalist. These were an improvement on Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, which was invented in 1793 on confiscated land given to General Nathaniel Greene, George Washington’s second in command. The wind gin greatly improved the output of cotton per acre and decreased the labor required,  compared with the less efficient hand or animal driven gins.

A community this size required a formal government. By an Act of 1799, Turks & Caicos Islands were granted seats in the Assembly at Nassau. Electors were to be male, free, white and at least 21 years of age.  A property ownership requirement of £500 and a residency of one year in the Bahamas was required. McKinnen states that Grand Caicos did not send a delegate to the Assembly.

A port of entry was established on the Caicos Islands and apparently used, since records are available of trading ships delivering goods to the Caicos from England and the United States. Trading with the United States was forbidden by law in 1788; however, the Bahama Gazette reported an attack on a ship from Rhode Island by a French privateer. “Statutory  neglect” seemed to be the order of the day!

The only record of local authority found on Grand Caicos was the appointment of six planters as Justices of Peace in 1791. These men were: William Gamble, Alexander Campbell Wylly, John Ferguson, John Lorimer, John Bell and Wade Stubbs. They could perform legal services such as marriage, wills and so forth for the residents of the Caicos Islands.

Improvements such as roads and landings were  likely done with private money. With the remoteness and the independent political attitude, it is highly unlikely that they received tax money.

Available records are meager but it is logical that families of this wealth would enjoy social gatherings. Their large mahogany dining tables and silver service appear ready for entertaining. The marriage of Thomas Brown and Ester Farr “at the Caicos” (reported in the Bahama Gazette) in 1789 was probably one of these events. John Lorimer’s request for “six of his slaves, dressed in white” to carry his body to his grave indicates more than a simple burial.

There is no doubt that the Caicos community was planned. Their association began in the colonies and continued in exile. A large percent of the planters had served in the military for the British. Many were high ranking officers and these officers were rewarded with larger grants of land.

The plantation period lasted for about three decades (1789–1820). Weather, insects, soil exhaustion and war have all been given as reasons for failure. Soil exhaustion was a primary reason and the smallness of the Islands compounded that condition.

Undoubtedly, these families suffered emotionally and were frustrated politically. Many families were separated never to reunite. Letters tell of their longing for home and of the day-to-day hardships they endured. The legacy of this poignant episode in the lives of these exiled Americans is found in a village name and landmark, Lorimers and Gambles Point, and some family names may have been adopted from the planters. Chimneys and stone walls dot the landscape and the ever-blowing gentle wind whispers the hidden history of the Caicos Islands.

In my quest to tell the Loyalist’s story, three field schools with students from Cumberland University were conducted. The plantations investigated were Haulover, Increase and Bonaventure. With the help of friends from Middle Caicos namely, Alton Higgs, Constance Hall, Valarie Hamilton and the hospitality of all of Bambarra village, I was able to locate the plantations, house students, have transportation and with Ernest Forbes as my faithful guide and my husband, Steve, survey the three plantations. Each one was cleared (to an extent), the buildings measured and plotted as to vicinity to each other. With a written appraisal, a description of the lifestyle and prosperity could be determined.

Story & Photos By Laura Brander

There are times in history that seem to go by ever so slowly, whilst others seem to fly by as if on fast forward. And that is very true of Providenciales. Only 50 years ago, this island was a sleepy little spot, a home to those who honoured the sea as it put food on their table; there was very little daily exposure to the outside world. But then the outside moved in — having discovered the peace and tranquility that everyone was looking for. And from that time onward, interest has grown exponentially in this newly discovered destination.

Air travel has been possible to Grand Turk, the nation’s capital, as well as to South Caicos for well over 50 years now, but the outer islands were truly only accessible by boat until much more recently. The first airstrip on Providenciales was cut into the landscape after an agreement between the government and a group very interested in development. Getting here often meant dealing with inconsistencies and hardship. There are those that can remember having to “sit on the runway in Grand Turk for up to 48 hours, waiting patiently with children in tow while anxiously anticipating a small plane to happen by en route to Provo with enough room for us. But the wait was well worth it.”

But finally, regular scheduled air travel was here to stay. More of an air terminal was erected, but it was far from what we find today. Only 10 years ago, arriving on Provo meant searching for your luggage in the middle of a pile that was barely under cover. Passengers would find themselves climbing on the stack digging for their personal bag. If it was raining, your luggage could end up wet and smeared in mud. But again, it was all well worth the visit and the popularity of the destination continued to grow.

Residents and return guests thought that the construction of the present day terminal would bring them abruptly into line with the rest of the world (often with sadness, if the truth be known.) But almost before it was complete, the new airport seemed overwhelmed with the task of keeping up.

How far we’ve come. How ironic it is that travel to Providenciales by air was once only possible by small aircraft, whether personally owned or by charter, and now it seems to have come full circle. It is now the mode of choice, one that dreams are made of. It is commonplace to look up and watch the numerous private planes in our airspace, from single engine craft that have followed the Bahamian chain down, to 737s chartered as a business incentive.

Harold Charles has played a key role in the history of aviation in the Turks & Caicos, believing in the future of these Islands for many years now. Among other things, he founded Professional Flight Services Ltd. in 1996, the country’s leading supplier of aircraft ground handling, servicing both commercial and private aircraft. Initially, these services were offered out of the main terminal. However, with increased air travel into Providenciales in general, the venue became too busy. Then, with the devastating effects of 9/11, the government decided to ensure that their primary focus was on catering to airlines, and so closed the international terminal to outside private business. A five year exclusive for delivering services to corporate aircraft was then granted to the only small private terminal on Provo to ensure that the business was not spread too thin; as an upper end destination, the government knew that the service had to survive one way or the other.

Having lost that arm of his business overnight, Mr. Charles set a plan in motion to provide better service than ever before, to meet the international community with an FBO that the Turks & Caicos Islands could be proud of. The new clientele interested in the luxury resorts popping up along Grace Bay, along with Parrot Cay, would only come if their needs were met and this needed to be done as quickly as possible. In January 2007, SkyBase opened its doors.

Private aircraft can request direction to this FBO from Ground Control upon arrival after being cleared inbound. Advance notification will give staff the ability to facilitate a faster entry by completing customs paperwork ahead of arrival. (In fact, 90% of the clientele now take advantage of this service.) And, even though official hours are from 7 AM to 7 PM, 365 days of the year, SkyBase will accommodate with prior notification for night service.

As you step off your aircraft, you’re met by Executive Agents with the appropriate landing papers who are there to escort you and operate as your on-site personal concierge service. They will organise ground transportation from the air terminal whether that be through their on-site limousine service or by directing a personal vehicle right to the aircraft for off-loading convenience, as well as confirm your accommodations so that there will be no delays. Baggage handling is offered, including belt loaders for the larger aircraft, as well as the convenience of transportation to the terminal if one desires — or requires, as SkyBase has been designed as a disabled persons’ facility.

Indoors, SkyBase is a breath of fresh air, with tasteful décor of white on white to exemplify the cleanliness of the facility. Splashes of red spice up the space, while greenery adds a calming element. Every detail is carefully thought through. The first exposure is to that of the quiet customs and immigration hall, where entry into the country is completed in comfort and privacy. Air conditioning keeps the heat out, while viewing of aircraft handling is possible. There is even the possibility — with the discretion of the immigration officer on duty — for clients to have their entry expedited while remaining on the plane. (This is only in extreme cases where discretion is of utmost importance or health concerns deem it necessary.)

Pilots can request engineering services and aircraft cleaning as well as refueling — at extremely competitive prices — so that everything possible is looked after upon arrival and not to be worried about during the island stay or rushed at the time of departure. There’s not much that can’t be done.

Passengers may choose to wait in a private lounge equipped with washroom; literature on the Islands and a television make it easy to pass the time. A spa-like shower room with towel service and bathing products can help in cleaning up after a long journey. The general waiting area has seating for over a dozen clients. Whether it is upon entry or while waiting to depart, clients may enjoy the two flat screen plasma televisions, each with different programming to match a variety of interests. You will also find coffee service, a snack dispenser and microwave for convenience in the general lounge. From here, there is full view of the runway.

The crew lounge offers telephone, computer access and printer, while a centrally located fax machine is available to send and receive. There is comfortable seating with a television. The lounge is designed for flight planning access and business arrangements to be made without having to leave the airport in a space that is comfortable and quiet without outside distractions.

SkyBase offers wireless Internet access throughout their facility as well as complimentary local and long distance calls. Owners can feel comfortable knowing that there are 24-hour security cameras throughout, with overnight patrols on the grounds. With safety in mind, ground staff has also been trained in emergency fire response as well as the handling of dangerous goods.

SkyBase was initially designed to handle up to 30 smaller business jets on its 6.5 acres of ramp parking space. However, with demand ever changing, three helipads have recently been added to accommodate their special requirements, and with demand increasing rapidly, SkyBase is now ensuring that privately chartered 737s, Gulf Stream IVs and Global Express jets are accommodated.

With the current trend following what the initial vision predicted, SkyBase will undergo dramatic change over the next few years. The facility we see today, even though quite impressive, is one that has always been meant to be Phase 1 of “a staged implementation of a multi-million dollar series of facilities.” The second phase, already on the drawing board, will include a hanger for aircraft parking, due to the locale’s elements being somewhat harsh on aircraft that remain on the ground for extended periods of time. There will be another hanger built solely for aircraft maintenance. Terminal facilities will enlarge, to include meeting rooms as well as a separate restaurant for the convenience of its clientele. Currently, SkyBase offers private gated parking with the option to accommodate vehicles while owners are off island. In the future, parking will triple in size.

To date, SkyBase has appeared to achieve their mission . . . “to be recognised as the first choice service provider for business and private aviation in the Turks & Caicos Islands, to provide a facility second to none surpassing expectations in quality, professionalism and security.” We can only expect the dedicated customer service and comprehensive ground services to continue, becoming better as the expansion is implemented. One would expect no less from a team of individuals with more than 30 years of aviation experience.

What lies ahead for aviation in the Turks & Caicos Islands? Early on, this country was host to a U.S. Air Force Base and welcomed John Glenn as he splashed down following his initial orbit of the Earth. Regular air service has been followed by the popularity of increased traffic of private jets — the bigger, the faster. Now what? Only time will tell.

By Claudia Camozzi, Director of Communications, Financial Services Initiative

Whether as a property or business owner, development or construction company, TCI financial services and products can help you with two things every investor requires: growing your investments and protecting your assets. Following is an overview of some of the products and services that may be of interest to you, available within the beautiful Turks & Caicos Islands —  just below the Tropic of Cancer, but right above your feet.

The economy of the Turks & Caicos Islands has been driven in recent years by fantastic growth in tourism and the related field of property development. The TCI financial services sector has supported this on-island growth for many years. In fact, the Turks & Caicos has established a track record in the financial industry, providing services such as banking, trusts, mutual funds, insurance, investments and incorporations.

Real estate development in the Turks & Caicos has contributed to an 11% year-on-year growth. This fluctuates between first or second in the world. To date, the return on realty has been excellent, thanks also to the country’s stunning natural beauty and the ever-decreasing availability of pristine land in the Caribbean. But the Islands also offer a variety of other investment vehicles, as well as advice for the returns generated by these projects.

TCI investment options

Should you prefer a more hands-off approach to placing your money, banks and funds in the TCI offer a range of products, with varying degrees of return or interest, depending on the length of the investment and, of course, adjusted to reflect one’s risk. In this case, managed funds place your investment in a variety of income funds ranging from stocks, bonds and currencies to local mortgages.

If you prefer to be more directly involved with the placement of your money, there are a number of investment dealers and advisors who can provide money management and advice. Either way, thresholds to investment can be very modest and the vehicles you choose may be as simple or complicated as you prefer.

Trustworthy TCI trusts

Having grown your assets through your purchase of land or property, small business or financial investments, the Turks & Caicos Islands also offer a range of services to protect your assets and your family’s financial future. These are not just for the “Forbes Rich List,” but could be useful to any investor in the TCI.

For more long-term protection of assets, TCI offers comprehensive Trust services. You can choose whether the Trust should be established as a Fixed Trust (where you define the interests of the beneficiaries on the distribution of money or capital) or as a Discretionary Trust (where the Trustee is given wide powers to make distributions). There are a number of advantages to establishing a TCI Trust, for example:

• TCI Trust legislation, unlike many other jurisdictions, allows Trusts to be held in perpetuity so you will not need to establish an end-date to the Trust.
• There is no obligation to register a TCI Trust and no requirement to register the Trust deed or assets, thus providing confidentiality regarding the Trust’s affairs.
• TCI Trusts immediately protect assets placed in them against creditor claims (as long as you are not already insolvent or become insolvent by creating the Trust).

Trusts are not only useful protection vehicles, but can also be used as investment vehicles, since investment managers may be employed to manage the assets. This means that your investment can mature safely.

Assuring insurance solutions

In the short term, you can ensure your well-being (and that of your family and your assets) through a range of insurance products designed for the needs (and risks) of the local market. This extends from basic car, home and medical insurance, to more sophisticated levels of cover.

Contractors and developers can benefit from insurance of buildings and materials on site, including  damages (e.g. flood, fire, hurricane) caused during construction. Cover for public and employers’ liability is also very important, and although not required by law, can be particularly useful given the duty of care that nonetheless is part of common law.

Developers can benefit from insurance cover on buildings and common areas as required by Strata Legislation. Unit owners can add to the areas covered by their strata agreements, for example through additional liability (useful if the property is rented for short lets), contents and rental cover.

Businesses can benefit from a range of insurance policies covering their stocks and inventory, business interruption and loss of profits (for example, in the event of a hurricane) and errors and omissions, particularly for professionals providing advice to clients.

Arranging insurance policies with domestically licensed insurers is usually much cheaper than using US or other foreign insurance policies. In addition, as a British Overseas Territory, the traditions follow British overseas insurance policies which do not suffer from the limitations of US insurance. For example, home owners’ and fire insurance includes flood and hurricane damage as standard. Local insurers also provide the benefits of a local help desk.

Having made astute investments in the Turks & Caicos Islands, the logical next step is growing and protecting your nest egg — and TCI financial services can help with that. Increasingly, we are developing platforms for investing through Turks & Caicos into emerging markets. In the coming months, new initiators will be brought on-stream to provide TCI investors with a greater variety of choices of investment vehicles. However, the real story is that our stable government serves as TCI’s bedrock of investor confidence.

The Turks & Caicos Islands are growing faster than almost every other nation on Earth. Come grow with us.

By Gina E. Mosely M.Sc., School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, UK with Professor Peter L. Smart and Dr. David A. Richards

Reports on climate change and its effects are becoming a regular occurrence within the media as researchers try to establish the impacts of global warming. At present, the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers are being significantly reduced due to surface warming and over the past several decades sea levels have risen as a result. However, in more recent years oceanic rise has been documented as occurring at an accelerated rate (IPCC, 2007). How high will sea levels rise in the future? How do we go about finding the answer? To assist in answering such questions we look to the past.

The last time that sea levels were above present-day levels was approximately 125,000 years ago during the last warm interglacial period. Sea levels at that time are estimated to have been up to 6 metres above the present level. Researchers, however, are particularly interested in an interglacial period beginning around 423,000 years ago known as Marine Isotope Stage 11 (MIS 11). The Earth’s orbit around the sun, which is one of the key drivers for cold glacial/warm interglacial periods, shows similarities between MIS 11 and the present day, allowing it to be used as an indicator of future conditions.

Beaches form at sea level as sand is deposited by the incoming waves and can therefore be used to establish former sea levels. Some beaches on Eleuthera in the Bahamas were formed during MIS 11 at a height of +22 metres above today’s sea level (Hearty, 1998), although there is debate about the evidence. It is thought that for sea levels to have risen so dramatically in the past, the entire Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheet must have collapsed. Such a rise in the future would have very serious implications globally. Understanding the heights that sea levels have reached in the past and the rates at which they rose and fell is therefore important to assist climate modellers with predicting future changes.

Sea level records are produced across the globe using a variety of proxies including coral reefs, beaches, sediment cores from the bottom of the ocean and cave deposits. The most complete record comes from coral reefs in Papua New Guinea, but the reefs there have been uplifted over the years creating uncertainty in the sea level record produced from them (Richards et al, 1994). The Turks & Caicos Islands are generally believed to be stable, making them an ideal study site for sea level research.

The porous limestone Islands are saturated through and through with saltwater at depth. And on top of the saltwater sits a layer of less-dense freshwater known as the freshwater lens. The freshwater/saltwater boundary is chemically aggressive and called the “mixing zone” or halocline. It is here that caves, called flank margin caves, form (Mylroie and Carew, 1990). Sea levels fall and rise with the expansion and contraction of ice sheets during cold glacial and warm interglacial periods, so changes in sea level result in changes in cave development, as new passages form at the elevation of the new mixing zone.

During September 2007, I visited the Conch Bar Cave system, Middle Caicos, with Professor Peter Smart of the University of Bristol, UK. This cave is the longest surveyed sub-aerial (above water) system in the Bahamas and Turks & Caicos Islands with over 5 kilometres of passages. (Some of the original survey information from 1994 is currently on display in the TCI National Museum on Grand Turk and the National Environmental Centre in Providenciales.) A particular reason for visiting the cave is that the highest passages are well above sea level and could provide evidence for the MIS 11 high stand.

We worked in the cave for four days from dawn until dusk, measuring the elevation of passages and cave deposits throughout the whole system. In some places this involved wading in deep water, in others balancing precariously on ledges to reach the ceiling of the large chambers and squeezing through the narrow corkscrew near the Indian Entrance. In total, 84 cross sections of passage were sketched, taking account of main ceiling height, former floors and low notches. Bells and tubes extending up into the roof were also recorded. Using surveying equipment comprising a level and staff, 689 detailed measurements of ceiling height were taken relative to water level within the cave. The water level, however, changes with the tide, making it necessary for a monitoring station to be set up to correct all the measurements to one fixed point.

Preliminary analysis of the results shows cave passages above sea level at +17 to +20.5 metres, +6.5 to +10 metres, +2.5 to +6 metres, +2 to +3 metres and -0.5 to + 1.5 metres. John Garvin, Mark Parrish and James Hurley of the Caicos Caves Project have also explored a lower level of passage at -15 to -12.5 metres and have provided data for our study. There are two possible explanations for the high passages — either Middle Caicos is subject to earth movements as are other islands near the Caribbean/North American tectonic plate boundary, or the highest levels confirm high sea stands associated with complete melting of the ice sheets.

We are now trying to find the age of the various levels in the caves by dating of the cave deposits such as stalagmites, stalagtites and flowstone. These contain an isotope of uranium called 234U which decays over a long period of time to an isotope of thorium, 230Th. The testing process works in a similar way to radiocarbon dating (14C) but with a longer range of application (400,000 years into the past compared to 50,000 years). A stalagmite will always be younger than the formation of the passage, therefore dating the deposit provides a minimum age for passage formation. Additionally, cave deposits do not form underwater so they therefore stop growing when flooded by rising sea levels. Through dating the point at which the deposit stopped growing and knowing the elevation that it was growing at, it is possible to establish how high sea levels were at a particular time.

A number of stalagmite samples were collected with permission from the TCI Department of Environment & Coastal Resources (DECR) for use in this study and will be dated using the state of the art, modern mass spectrometric facilities at the University of Bristol. Efforts at present are being concentrated into obtaining an age for the formation of the passage in Upper Entrance that is 17 metres above sea level.

In addition to the work on Middle Caicos, one day was spent looking at the caves of East Caicos to assess sites for further study. Members of the Caicos Caves Project, TCI National Trust and DECR guided our visit.

We visited four caves on East Caicos which had been previously located. Stubb’s Guano Cave and East Caicos Cave #2 were both found to be dry caves which had previously been mined for guano. Both caves contained old wooden artefacts that had been used in the mining industry and inside the former, the date “1883” was inscribed in the wall. These two caves also appeared to have two passage elevations at approximately +1 to +2.5 metres and +3 to +7 metres above sea level. East Caicos #2 also contained a large pool of water at one end of the cave though no underwater sections were found.

The impressive Edison’s Cathedral Cave was found to be largely flooded and contained some underwater passages. The ceiling of the cave is extremely high and may be greater than +9 metres. Wooden structures and several pieces of old machinery were found within the cave, though it was difficult to decide whether this cave had been used in the guano mining industry or if the machinery served another purpose. Large rocks were stacked on shelves high above the water which indicates that at some point in the past the floor was much higher.

The final cave we investigated was a sinkhole with a large collapsed entrance. The cave, which was mainly flooded, had ceilings up to approximately 3 metres high and appeared to have only one phase of sub-aerial passages. Divers John Garvin and Mark Parrish explored considerable sections of underwater passages which most probably relate to another phase of passage development.

Further survey work is now needed on East Caicos. Other high level caves may be present in Flamingo Hill, the highest point of the Turks & Caicos Islands and so a return trip is planned to locate and survey these. Meanwhile, dating work continues at Bristol and we are also investigating other high level caves in the Bahamas, such as Hatchet Bay Cave on Eleuthera.

This trip was funded partly through the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), Studentship number NER/S/A/2005/13256. The authors would especially like to thank John Garvin, Mark Parrish and James Hurley of the Caicos Cave Project and Kim Mortimer for diving and logistical support on East Caicos, Middle Caicos and Providenciales. Thanks are extended to Brian Manco and Judnel “Flash” Blaise of the TCI National Trust and Brian Riggs of the Department of Environment & Coastal Resources for guidance and expertise during the visit to East Caicos. Thanks also go to Capt. Cardinal Arthur of Middle Caicos for his excellent seamanship. We would also like to thank the TCI Government for their permission to undertake this sea level research.

References

Hearty, P.J., 1998. The geology of Eleuthera Island, Bahamas: A rosetta stone of Quaternary stratigraphy and sea-level history, Quaternary Science Reviews, 17, pp. 333–355.

Lemke, P., J. Ren, R.B. Alley, I. Allison, J. Carrasco, G. Flato, Y. Fujii, G. Kaser, P. Mote, R.H. Thomas and T. Zhang, 2007. Observations: Changes in Snow, Ice and Frozen Ground. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Mylroie, J.E., and Carew, J.L., 1990. The flank margin model for dissolution cave development in carbonate platforms, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 15, pp. 413–424.

Richards, D.A., Smart, P.L. and Lawrence-Edwards, R., 1994. Maximum sea levels for the last interglacial period from U-series ages of submerged speleothems, Nature, 367, pp. 357–360.

By Bill Keegan and Betsy Carlson

Chip-chip: a small shellfish found along the tideline of Trinidadian beaches. Gathering chip-chip is a weary task, bringing almost no reward.

Shiva Naipaul, 1973

In 1973, Shiva Naipaul, the brother of renowned author Sir V. S. Naipaul (Paul Theroux, 1998), published the book The Chip-Chip Gatherers. The quote comes from the inside cover of the dust jacket. In the book, he used chip-chip gathering as a metaphor for the futility of life. Chip-chips are tiny Donax clams (donaca) that live in the sand along the tide line and used to be eaten throughout the Caribbean and southeastern United States. They are a delight to watch, as they leave the sand with each passing wave and then burrow furiously back into the sand as the wave ebbs, repeating this action with every wave.

As Naipaul indicated, gathering and preparing chip-chip is a weary task. Each clam contains less than a gram of meat, and they must be quickly collected between each wave. Because they live in sand, the clams’ meat must be thoroughly washed after it is removed from the shell. The meat is then grated (which given its small size can be hard on fingertips) and then washed and strained to remove any remaining sand. The effort is worth it. If you are in Trinidad around the time of Carnival (chip-chip is only available in February and March), we strongly recommend that you make every effort to find a place that serves this tasty mollusk.

The consumption of chip-chips has an ancient history. At the St. Catherine site that we excavated in Trinidad there were thousands and thousands of their shells in the midden (refuse) deposit. Although we don’t find chip-chip in archaeological sites in the Lucayan Islands, we do find a wide variety of similar small mollusks whose collection and processing provide very small amounts of meat, such as the beaded periwinkles that cling to shoreline rocks.

This raises the question, why would anyone endure such a weary task for so little reward? Certainly people had more productive things to do with their time! But this attitude reflects our Western philosophical heritage.

A common assumption, traced back to the writings of Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651), is that life in the past was “nasty, brutish and short.” Hobbes’s philosophy later received a boost from Thomas Malthus (An Essay on the Principle of Population, 1798), who recognized that if population continued to grow unchecked, (due to the “unbridled passion of the sexes”) humans would soon outstrip available food resources resulting in starvation and death. Charles Darwin (Origin of Species, 1859) further promoted this conclusion in his oft-quoted notion of “survival of the fittest” (although fitness for Darwin was measured in the contribution of offspring to the next generation).

Alfred Lord Tennyson expressed this view most eloquently in his poem In Memorium A.H.H. (1849):

Who trusted God was love indeed

And love Creation’s final law

Tho’ Nature, red in tooth and claw

With ravine, shrieked against his creed

When the scientific disciplines of evolutionary biology and human ecology first developed, it was assumed that finding enough of the right foods to eat was the main struggle of animals and people (finding an appropriate mate was also important). Given the number of people living today in poverty, the views of Hobbes, Malthus and Darwin seem not so far fetched. From this perspective, people reduced to eating tiny clams must surely be on the verge of starvation. After all, a person expends more energy collecting these clams than they get from eating them.

Until the 1970s, notions of progressive cultural evolution viewed modern society as the acme of social development. People in the past must have lived deprived lives and cultures that survived by hunting and gathering were viewed as barely managing to survive. Civilization was only possible with the development of agriculture, which served as the foundation for the world’s great civilizations. Then along came Marshall Sahlins (1973) who was one of the first to actually calculate the amount of time hunter-gatherers spent obtaining food. He found that although these people had a paucity of material goods, they spent far less time than modern workers. In sum, they actually worked less hard to meet their needs than most of us do today. For this reason he called them “The Original Affluent Society.” Perhaps H. L. Mencken was right when he said that no labour-saving device has ever saved a minute of labor! (Mencken was the son of a cigar factory owner. Cigars were “invented” by the Taínos, so go ahead and light one up after your next great Caribbean meal.)

Let us reconsider the lowly mollusk. The modern view of eating mollusks is skewed by our notion of superiority over the past. In California, the brown land snail is a garden pest, while in France it is escargot. Digging clams in New England and catching scallops in Florida are popular family activities, but most people don’t do these to feed their family. Should we really believe that our lifestyle is so different to those who lived in the past?

The consumption of conch by the early inhabitants of the Turks & Caicos Islands seems to make perfect sense. Queen conch (carrucho or cobo) provides a large package of meat that is virtually all protein. In addition, if prepared correctly, dried conch can be preserved for up to six months making this a storable surplus item. But why eat other small snails and clams unless you are starving? Our answer is that the Taínos had the luxury of eating these other mollusks because they were not starving. Like us, they liked them and considered them worth the effort.

Many of the people who visit the Turks & Caicos Islands are primarily interested in the beautiful white sand beaches. We suggest that you take a moment to walk along the rocky shoreline where you will encounter the world of snails and chitons. Covering these rocks you will see thousands of nerites, periwinkles, chitons, and in a few places the West Indian top shell (whelk). The Lucayan Taínos ate all of these animals. Close by in the grass flats, there is an array of clams buried among the roots of the turtle grass or mangroves. All you need to do is reach down and pull them up (if they don’t “swim” away from your hand). It may be a folly of youth, but a lasting memory from invertebrate zoology class is that the clam’s body is folded in half such that its anus and head are side-by-side. It’s true; clams defecate on their heads. Yet, clams, oysters and mussels are considered delicacies (and appetisers), and are fun to gather and cook.

No doubt, you are familiar with oysters, mussels, lobsters and conch, but here are a few delicacies you may not have tried. Chitons are an armored creature that live on the rocks just at the tide line and are one of the hardest animals to harvest because they are firmly stuck to the rocks. The local name for them in these Islands is “suck rock.” A series of eight body plates surround the small, edible body and these plates are found in the archaeological middens and they are always intact. Without metal tools, the only way the Lucayan Taínos could have harvested these animals without smashing the plates and the meat inside was by using a combination of conch shell tools. The beveled tip of a conch columella would be used to wedge the animal free from the rocks with help from a conch hammer (made from the other spire end of the conch). So is it worth the effort? The resulting small strip of black meat of the chiton is salty, rubbery and a little slimy. Maybe not.

Another option is nerite snails. These snails are about an inch in diameter and are easy to pluck off the rocks along the water line. These are best prepared in a soup or stew, which easily releases the muscle from the snail shell.

Whelks can be prepared the same way or they can be eaten raw straight off the rocks. This is a larger gastropod that can grow up to 4 inches in diameter. The shells were modified as tools and ornaments by the Lucayan Taínos. The meat of the whelk can be picked from the shell with a small pointed tool if you can catch the animal before it slams the door closed. Its “door” is really the stony end of its foot, which fits across the opening of the shell in order to protect its inhabitant. This end is called an “operculum” and they are found in archaeological sites, with some of them identifiable to the animal they came from.

Conchs have a similar hard foot. The way to extract conch meat is to hit a hole in the top spire area and cut the muscle free from the shell with a knife or sharp reed. Modern fishermen use machetes to knock a slit in the top of the conch shell. Lucayan Taínos knocked a round hole in the top using the spire of another conch shell.

References to the lowly invertebrates of the world occur in all cultures and from all periods of time. One you may remember comes from an English nursery rhyme:

Mary, Mary quite contrary,

How does your garden grow?

With silver bells and cockle shells

And pretty maids all in a row.

This rhyme has been interpreted as a reference to Mary (“Bloody Mary”), the daughter of Henry VIII. So, what is the subtext of this seemingly innocuous little poem? With the metaphors removed, the poem might read:

Bloody Mary, quite contrary

How does your graveyard grow?

With thumbscrews and genital clamps

And guillotines all in a row.

Clearly, we have gotten off topic!  We started by discussing the seasonal delicacy of chip-chip in Trinidad. For Naipul, a symbol of life’s futility, yet for many people clams and other boneless sea creatures are a source of great joy. Coming back to Hobbes, is it nature that makes life “nasty, brutish and short,” or could that be human nature? Let’s ask Mary.

Dr. Bill Keegan is Curator of Caribbean Archaeology at the Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Dr. Betsy Carlson is an Archaeologist with Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., Jonesville, Florida.

Hard corals are the underwater realm’s essential, yet vulnerable building blocks.

Story by Suzanne Gerber ~ Photos by Barbara Shively

It’s not exactly like missing the forest for the trees, but let’s just say that the novice snorkeller or diver pays much more attention to the passing fish and other marine life than their stationary habitats. But once your mind — and eye — gets trained to focus on the exquisite coral reefs and learn how vital they are to that underwater life, to the ocean, and even to humans, you’ll never ignore them again.

Coral reefs have been called the tropical rain forests of the underwater realm, and that’s no exaggeration. For one thing, all marine creatures depend on corals for their very existence, either directly or indirectly for food, energy and protection. Corals’ biochemical processes nourish our beaches, and because they’re impervious to erosion, they help maintain the integrity of the shoreline and protect it from storm damage. Finally, because they are home to so many fish, they directly support 75% of all human life on earth (the percent that relies on fish for sustenance) and indirectly sustain life by providing revenue to fishermen and those involved in the diving and snorkelling industries worldwide. That’s just how they function; we haven’t even mentioned how jaw-droppingly gorgeous the hundreds of species of coral are.

And yet across the globe, our coral reefs are in trouble — big trouble. Corals are living animals, not plants, and while they might look sturdy as oaks, they are incredibly fragile. Over the past few decades, their collective health has been declining at an alarming rate. Some scientists conjecture that if we don’t take positive action now to slow, stop or reverse the negative factors impacting corals, we will lose the majority of our life-sustaining coral reefs over the next 50 years. Doomsayers feel we don’t even have that long.

But first, some good news . . . Corals have been on the planet for an incalculably long time, but they weren’t classified as animals until 1753, when a French scientist recognised that despite their plantlike appearance, they actually are attached to the substrate of the ocean and have self-propelled locomotion. Their phylum, cnidaria (pronounced nigh-DARE-ee-uh), also includes anemones, jellyfish and hydroids, which are often mistaken for corals. While there are hundreds of species and many look like complex plants, their structures are actually quite simple: a cup-shaped body with a single opening (for both incoming and outgoing materials) that’s surrounded by tentacles, which both protect corals and help them procur food.

We tropical-water divers are spoiled: we’re surrounded by glorious coral reefs, which most of us take for granted when we engage in our favorite hobby. And yet the conditions that give rise to corals’ existence are both specific and precarious. Water temperatures must consistently be in the 70 to 85º Fahrenheit range, although short periods of higher or lower temperatures can be tolerated. (This is why we only find coral in the “circumtropical” belt, where waters do stay in this range.) Surprisingly, sustained high temps (over 85º for a few weeks) will cause the corals to release the algae that resides within them, which cause the corals to be bleached of their magnificent color. After just a few weeks in this bleached state, the coral will die. But more on this later.

Corals also require very specific qualities in their surrounding water: it must be fairly shallow sea (not fresh) water, with the proper amount of salinity and clarity, to allow sunlight through. The base of the ocean (the substrate) must allow the corals to form “roots,” so colonies can form. Any one of these factors goes off, and coral dies.

When conditions are right, corals flourish. They’re remarkably well-designed and well-programmed — as you would hope the elemental building blocks of reef systems are. For starters, they have an ingenious symbiotic relationship with the aforementioned algae, more properly referred to as zooxanthellae (pronounced zoo-zan-THEL-ee, should this come up at your next cocktail party). These zooxanthellae live inside the coral polyp, which is what attaches to the substrate, and when enough individual polyps congregate, which they do naturally, coral colonies — aka reefs — are born. Corals pull calcium from the water to create a hard skeleton, and when they die, the bony exoskeleton builds on what was there, thus expanding the reef.

Of the hundreds of species, which run the palette gamut from soft pastels to deep orange and scarlet and, occasionally, violet, we can divide hard corals into just a few categories: branching and pillar; encrusting, mound and boulder; brain; leaf, plate and sheet; fleshy; and cup and flower. There’s a whole other world of soft corals, also called gorgonians, but that’s a subject for another story. Within one coral reef, there can easily be 50 different species, but it takes years of experience to differentiate them. (Actually, the corals themselves are clear and colorless. It’s the zooxanthellae that contain the hue.) Many seasoned divers still are clueless as to what types of corals are hosting their beloved fish and critters, and that’s a pity.

Another thrilling aspect to coral life is how radically different they look (and function) by day and by night. When the sun is out, polyps are generally retracted for protection, but come nightfall, the underwater world is transformed into a psychedelic wonderland of bright colors, shapes and textures. The exposed polyps in turn attract different critters, and the dive site you visited just a few hours before becomes virtually unrecognizable. No wonder so many divers jump at the chance for a night dive!

And now the bad news . . . Coral reefs are indisputably imperiled. Their fragility makes them vulnerable to both local pressure and global events. Storm damage, overfishing and reckless behavior by everyone from divers to yachties and cruisers (via anchors and sewage-dumping) to local residents (toxic runoff from development as well as pollution) are bad enough, but scientists the world over concur that by far and away, the number one threat to our precious reefs is global warming, with its subsequent raised water temps and UV radiation from ozone depletion. Specifically, marine biologists look to the health of elkhorn and staghorn corals (collectively classified as Acropora) as markers of overall reef vigor and planetary health.

Once the most prevalent in the Caribbean, these species have experienced a decline of 80 to 98% over the past three decades, and this terrible pattern shows no sign of abating. This hardly comes as a surprise. Many U.S. and international organizations have been aware of this downward turn, and the Center for Biological Diversity has petitioned the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) Fisheries Office to declare them endangered species, which would force protective legislation — but to no avail. Tragic as this is, the Caribbean is actually in far better shape than much of the wider Pacific and Indian oceans, where coral mortality rates have been in the 90% range in recent years, according to a spokesperson for the Global Coral Reef Alliance, who calls the situation “an underwater holocaust.”

The (moderately) good news is that with awareness, we can insist on action — from our governments. As individuals we can appeal to our politicians to enact and enforce appropriate legislation. We can refuse to participate in activities that lead to reef destruction (thoughtless land-clearing along coastlines, sewage-dumping, pollution, touching or banging into coral when we snorkel or dive). We can organise and insist on local coastal organizations to be responsible for their waste-water treatment and release of toxic materials into the ocean.

On a completely different — and positive — note, corals, like their terrestrial cousins the tropical rain forests, hold promise for human healing. Certain bioactive compounds have been isolated from corals (and sponges, algae, mollusks and more), and in early studies appear to have anti-bacterial and tumor-fighting properties. A few species, which resemble human bone when implanted, may be viable bone substitutes for people suffering from arthritis and other bone and joint diseases. This research is in its infancy, but may prove invaluable in improving the quality of countless lives — not to mention actually saving lives. But first, we have to save theirs.

New York-based Suzanne Gerber writes about scuba, travel and health for a variety of publications. Book your next dive trip by contacting Suzanne at suzanne@worldofdiving.com.

Avid underwater photographer Barbara Shively discovered Grand Turk diving in 1997 and has returned every year. It is her passion to share the coral reefs’ beauty through her photographs. A variety of her prints are on sale at Art Provo, located in The Regent Village, Providenciales.

By Laura Brander

“La Vista Azul” is an exotic phrase that rolls off one’s tongue as waves might gently lap a shoreline. “The blue view” is exactly what this Providenciales North Shore development can boast, terraced into the hillside overlooking Turtle Cove and the myriad of blues that make up the beauty of Grace Bay. This Mediterranean-inspired community offers a total of 78 luxurious residential units as well as a commercial plaza beautifully nestled into the 3.5 acres of multi-leveled topography.

The Turtle Cove address currently offers the convenience of six restaurants, the very popular Player’s Club casino, the Cocoloco night club and a variety of shops and services. Sports enthusiasts will find several fishing charters, dive operators and boating excursions that set out from the marina. And four miles of powdery white sand stretch from its entrance for those that are drawn to the world famous beach and pristine waters of Grace Bay. All of this is just a short stroll from La Vista Azul.

The five residential buildings take full advantage of the elevation with its magnificent view and cooling tropical tradewinds. The first two buildings are home to the development’s private gym, spa, and games room — set just above sea level — while three levels of residential units climb the hillside in a terraced fashion. These units are unique in that they all incorporate landscaped rooftop gardens as extensions to their balconies, borrowing from the terrace below to produce a generous 350 square feet of outdoor living space. The next two buildings are set along the ridge, with a lofty vantage point of up to 80 feet above sea level. These front four buildings are positioned so that most units enjoy unobstructed views of the ocean. The fifth building sits to the back of the development with partial ocean views; a botanical garden adds an element of privacy between it and the front four. This particular building is excellent value for the investor or long term resident looking to buy, as units are offered at a substantially lower cost, with the same high caliber of living space. The ridge buildings have the luxury of covered parking, while the terraced buildings include space to their front.

Each of the five buildings incorporates the full range of floor plans. You can choose a spacious studio with full size kitchen of approximately 700 square feet or the larger “studio plus,” a junior one bedroom similar in size to the larger studio, yet with the added element of separate bedroom privacy. There is also a larger one bedroom plan or . . . perhaps you’d prefer a top floor, two bedroom Presidential penthouse of almost 3,000 square feet of living space? The privacy balcony off the master bedroom and the ability to lock-out the second bedroom are both very alluring features.

All interiors will include stone tile floors, custom cabinets and vanities, stainless steel GE Profile appliances and the beauty of Kohler fixtures. Solid wood doors add an element of privacy and are used for both interior and entrance applications. Safety is a priority; impact resistant sliding doors lead out to your terrace with shuttered windows for hurricane protection. Presently, a high end furniture package is included in the unit price as an incentive to purchase.

Three swimming pools will grace the development on the upper terrace, from which residents may enjoy stunning sunsets and ocean views. Water will spill from this upper terrace and cascade down between the front two residential sites amidst lush landscaping. The focal point of a central fountain amidst the commercial plaza (emulating one on the upper level) ties the two components together, one complimenting the other. There will also be a fully equipped fitness centre with indoor hot tub.

Residents and guests alike will benefit from the commercial side; the on-site inclusion of gift shops, convenience store and coffee shop will complete the La Vista Azul community. The 16 commercial units are also offered for sale to the astute investor or business operator as a strata entity.

The two men behind the development fell in love with the island and recognized its potential after visiting on vacation. One left his Toronto home to build another in the Chalk Sound area and then later went on to bring the Queen Angel resort condominiums to Providenciales. The other, a gentleman from Chicago, initially bought several units in the Queen Angel before joining the initial developer to purchase the property down the street.

Construction of La Vista Azul has been underway now for several months. Interested parties don’t have to wait before watching their dreams realized. Completion of their blue view is anticipated by the summer of 2009, an estimated 24 months from beginning to end. Added development bonuses? A percentage of the remaining units are still available through vendor takeback mortgages, maintenance fees will be extremely competitive, and the professionally managed rental program offers a higher percentage to the owner than most other developments on the island. With units ranging from $240,000 to $1.3 million, this development offers spectacular views, excellent value and luxury accommodations without paying Grace Bay waterfront prices.

For more information on La Vista Azul, phone 649 941 8118 or toll-free 877 832 6141 or visit www.lvaresort.com.

By Katya Brightwell

Nestled between two major resorts at the far end of Grace Bay Beach is a modest wooden bungalow.  Raised on stilts from the fine white sand, with brightly-coloured slats and a traditional tin roof, the space is home to the Cultural Market Place of Providenciales — a discrete retail and relaxation haven.

Designed to provide the island’s beach vendors with shelter to sell their wares, the Cultural Market Place’s sunny yellow interior overflows with a horde of multi-coloured art pieces, layers of decorated t-shirts and sarongs, a myriad of shells and clusters of jewellery to explore. And there’s fresh local seafood and cold drinks at a cosy café to satisfy hunger and thirst.

Karen Forbes, President of the Providenciales Beach Vendors Association, was one of the vendors who initiated the Cultural Market Place by requesting a permanent location for the group from the now Premier, Honourable Michael Misick, before he ran for office. He promised that if he came to power he would provide a site. “And he kept his promise!” enthuses Karen. Some who now sit more comfortably in the homely confines of this building had been working the beach for over 20 years. The site, now open almost three years, is a welcome environment after hours of toting heavy bags through the sand and braving the elements to make a living.

Some of the vendors specialise in local straw work products, some in conch-shell art, some display brightly-coloured Haitian metalwork (with geckos abounding) and some original paintings. A few make their own jewellery and will custom-make on request. You can even get your hair braided on site.

“There’s a warm atmosphere and we all help each other out,” says Karen of the 33 souvenir-sellers who currently use the Cultural Market Place. “If you’re looking for a certain type of artwork, we’ll pass you to the person who has what you’re looking for, as we all specialise in different products. And the prices are good with some of the best deals on the island!”

Sitting unassumingly between Club Med and Ocean Club East, the Cultural Market Place also houses the only native restaurant in the area — the Flamingo Café. This simple bar and restaurant is run by friendly Ricky Clarke, a Grand Turk native and chef of ten years standing. The café specialises in seafood and other native dishes, with conch specials and lobster dishes (in season). Ricky is known to entertain with song while cooking up some of his famed cracked conch, and will even invite you into his kitchen to help if you like. His dulcet tones and the waft of cooking smells add to the comfortable feel of the building.

Bar stools raised in a shaded patio are a perfect place to enjoy your freshly-made food with a cold drink and a breeze, and the recent addition of a few permanent “umbrellas” directly on the beach in front provide a welcome area to relax too. The Flamingo Café even offers catering for parties and can accommodate 60+ people for food and drink — all at one of the finest stretches of beachfront in Providenciales.

The Islands’ first Cultural Market Place has proved so popular that a second is in the making, at the opposite end of Grace Bay Beach in the Bight next to Beaches Resort & Spa. While beach vendors from this stretch wait to occupy their space, the Middle Caicos Café, run by Lisa Harvey, is already open. In another atmospheric location you can enjoy the slow pace from breakfast “until the last customer leaves.” Native seafood dishes (with a different island slant) are offered and Saturday night is a must, with a live local band providing entertainment to a bustling crowd of fun.

Both locations provide welcome places simply to hang out. “We’re kind of like a family,” says Karen.  “You can come and chill, right on the beach, chat to friendly people from all over the Islands, and, come evening, enjoy a perfect view of our gorgeous sunsets over the water.”

The Cultural Market Place by Ocean Club East is open for local arts and souvenir shopping daily between 9 AM and 5 PM. The Flamingo Café is also open daily from midday until late.

The Middle Caicos Café at the “Beaches” Cultural Market Place is open from 8 AM until “the last customer leaves.”

By Marlon Hibbert, Scientific Monitoring Officer, DECR

As the year 2007 draws to a close, the world is turning its attention to Bali, Indonesia where countries will meet under the United Nations banner to forge a successor to the Kyoto Protocol, the 1997 international treaty designed to reduce greenhouse gases. What does all this really mean though? For years scientists has been warning of the warming of the earth mainly due to emissions from our fossil-fueled lives.

Here in the Turks & Caicos Islands, sea surface temperatures have shown a general upward trend for the last 20 years. The highest temperatures ever recorded here were in 1998 and 2005. During these two years the TCI experienced the worst cases of coral bleaching in their recorded history.

Global warming is occurring because the sun’s rays are being captured in the earth’s atmosphere by high levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other pollutants. Most of this CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil fuels, mainly from oil and coal deposits. The inability of these rays to exit the earth’s atmosphere is commonly called the “greenhouse” effect and the result is that the earth’s temperature is rising and has risen by 1ºC over the last 100 years.

The high population growth and rapid industrialisation of the past century have increased our usage of fossil fuels and the vast amounts of fuel burned for electricity generation and transportation are the highest contributors of these “greenhouse gases” to the atmosphere. The two commonly identified systems capable of absorbing a great deal of this CO2 are the world’s forests and oceans. Unfortunately forests are being removed at very rapid rates and our oceans are being polluted in likewise fashion. We humans, it seems, are creating an environmental catastrophe around ourselves.

Some scientists now believe that even if we were to cut emissions in half (as per the Kyoto Protocol), the long-term damage has already been set in motion and the world will still feel the effects of global warming for many years.

Why is global warming a threat?

Answers to this question are both simple and difficult to explain. The most holistic answer is to look at it from the angle of climactic change. If worldwide temperatures increase, tropical countries, like ours, will get warmer. Temperate and cold countries will get warmer as well. But consider that these natural biomes have developed around stable climactic conditions since the last major ice age about 21,000 years ago, and now these climactic conditions seem to be changing in a matter of decades. Weather patterns in particular are being affected. Some changes have been positive, but others have been negative. Some countries, for example, are receiving more rainfall while others are going through longer periods of drought.

In our area of the world, the incidence and intensity of tropical cyclones (hurricanes) are being fuelled by higher temperatures. Eight of the past ten years have been the overall warmest ever recorded. Natural disasters like these reduce the capabilities of people and governments to grow economies and the ever-increasing loss of life and property, of course, are causes for concern.

The Turks & Caicos Islands is a low lying country, much of it rising to only a few feet above present sea level. One of the predicted effects of climate change will be sea level rise. Increased temperatures will melt polar ice caps and glaciers, reducing fresh water for consumption in some countries but also increasing sea levels. The glaciers of Kilimanjaro in East Africa have been reduced by 80% in the past century and the streams and lakes that they feed are drying up, causing water shortages for hundreds of thousands of people. Some coastal villages and farmlands in the low-lying Pacific Island nation of Palau have already been invaded by salt water.

For low lying countries, this means disaster and most of the world’s population live within coastal regions. At greatest risk are the smallest nations, the island states. Already burdened with the problems of developing nation status, climate change comes at a bad time. Importantly, these nations are nowhere close to being the greatest contributors to climate change but will be among the worst affected. Much of the TCI as we now know it could be underwater; significant resources would have to be found to relocate people and infrastructure.

Rising sea temperatures also mean that coral reefs  around the world are all threatened. Corals are almost at their upper limit of temperature tolerance now. The incidences of coral bleaching are increasing in frequency worldwide and with increased temperatures have come more coral diseases. Any further warming may finish reefs  around the world for good. Land based sources of pollution are exacerbating the effects of bleaching and disease. Loss of coral reefs for countries like the TCI could lead to a collapse of fisheries which are completely dependent on the reefs for food and habitat.

The trickle-down effects of global warming are staggering:

• Ocean acidification
• Ocean circulation changes
• Extreme temperatures
• New diseases
• Hydrological changes
• Ecological disruption
• Species loss
• Atmospheric circulation changes

What can be done?

A concerted effort must be made by the countries of the world not only to reduce their emissions but to find a way to reduce the CO2 deposits in the atmosphere. Some scientists are certain that just planting trees will not solve the problem, but new and innovative ways will have to be found to remove CO2.

The countries who are most threatened by the climactic changes need to make the world hear their voice. The first step in finding a resolution to any problem is education — the better informed people are, the more likely better decisions will be made.

The information is out there and widespread. Using this information, people are going to have to change their ways of life and thinking to ensure that they are playing their part in helping nature heal itself.

Climate change is not a governmental issue, it is a people issue, and strategies to adapt and prepare for climate change have to be instituted at the national and international levels.

There is, in some circles, an idea floating around that too much is being made of the climate change and global warming . . . yet all around us, the signs are clear. More active hurricane seasons, more intense storms, flooding disasters, increases in forest fires and lengthy droughts are all examples of changes. Conversely, some feel that effects of climate change are being underestimated and the real story is not being told.

Yet as humans are the most likely cause of these changes (IPCC 2007), how then can we throw caution to the wind and ignore these signs? Should we side with the doubters and refuse to take charge and prepare ourselves? Or should we begin an immediate and rapid change worldwide to counter the effects of our own design? Good sense must prevail. We must not forget  the lesson we teach to our own children:  “Prevention is better than cure.” Erring on the side of caution can do us no harm, but if we ignore our own best advice, we wouldn’t only be wrong, we could be dead wrong.